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Most of us grow up knowing the basics of our genealogy: our parents, grandparents, and siblings, plus aunts, uncles, and cousins. But once the conversation turns to “second cousins” or “first cousins once removed,” it’s easy to get lost.

Despite how confusing it may sound, cousin designations follow a logical pattern. Each label, whether it’s first cousin or third cousin twice removed, marks your place on a family tree and shows how you and another person can trace your lineage back to a shared ancestor. Let’s break it down.

Second Cousins

Many of us have one or more first cousins, though you may rarely use the term “first” when referring to them. These are the children of your parents’ siblings, aka your aunts and uncles. You share a set of grandparents with these cousins, and because you’re generally in the same generation, they’re usually also the cousins you know best. First cousins often grow up alongside us, close in age and in experience, and can even sometimes feel almost like brothers and sisters.

Second cousins can also be in the same generation as first cousins, but they’re separated by one step. Rather than being the children of your parents’ siblings, they’re the children of your parents’ first cousins. So you and your second cousins share the same great-grandparents, but not the same grandparents. For example, if your grandmother’s sister has grandchildren, those grandchildren are your second cousins.

A handy way to keep this straight is to think of the number preceding “cousin” as pointing to the generation of grandparents the cousins share. First cousins connect at grandparents and second cousins connect at great-grandparents. From there, the pattern continues upward.

Third, Fourth, and Fifth Cousins

Once you understand second cousins, the rest is relatively easy to follow. Third cousins share great-great-grandparents and are the great-grandchildren of siblings. Fourth cousins share great-great-great-grandparents, and fifth cousins share great-great-great-great-grandparents. With each generation back, you add one more “great” to the ancestor you share.

As the generations multiply, the number of possible cousins expands dramatically. By the time you reach fourth and fifth cousins, you may have hundreds — even thousands — spread across regions or countries. That’s because your family tree grows exponentially: Each generation back doubles your number of ancestors, so you have 16 great-great-grandparents, 32 great-great-great-grandparents and 64 great-great-great-great grandparents, each potentially linking you to many different family branches. 

What “Once Removed” Means

The other piece of cousin terminology that causes confusion is the word “removed,” a term that signifies the number of generations that separate cousins. If someone is your cousin “once removed,” that means they’re one generation above or below you. 

For example, your mother’s cousin is your first cousin once removed, but your cousin’s child is also your first cousin once removed. In one case the person is a generation older, in the other a generation younger, but in both cases “removed” marks that generational gap.

If the gap in question spans two generations, that cousin is “twice removed.” For example, your grandmother’s cousin is your cousin twice removed. In theory, the “removed” label can continue indefinitely — three times removed, four times removed, and so on.

Cousins Can Have Very Little Shared DNA

There’s no limit to how distantly related two people can be and still count as cousins. As long as they both share a common ancestor, however far back, they’re cousins to some degree. Genealogists and ancestry software can identify cousin relationships into the teens — so you may be able to trace links to 10th cousins, 12th cousins, and even 19th cousins.

What changes when we get higher up into our family trees is the closeness of the genetic connection. While full siblings share 50% of their DNA, first cousins share only about 14.4%, second cousins share just 3.4%, and third cousins share less than 1%. By the time you reach fifth cousins, the overlap is tiny and may not even appear in a DNA test, making genealogical records important for tracing connections.

Knowing How We’re Related Helps Us Know Ourselves

Cousin terminology can seem complicated — especially as these relationships become increasingly separated from us by numerous sets of grandparents and multiple generations. But these distinctions have long clarified inheritance and marriage rules, and today they help genealogists trace family networks across large swaths of history.

For most of us, though, it’s about connection: Second cousins and first cousins once removed can still be close enough to share family stories and give us insight into relatives we may have never met. And even those distant cousins, the ones we only know by the names inked in family records or online genealogy resources, are reminders of how families endure and how, in many ways, we are all connected.

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No matter how old you are, it’s never too late to make it big. While success and fame are commonly associated with youth, some people are proof you should never be discouraged from following your dreams — at any age. Making bold choices and taking on new adventures later in life can pay off in a major way, as these success stories show us.

Plenty of actors, artists, authors, and other celebrities spent decades trying to break through before finally earning a spot in the limelight, while others achieved fame by taking a leap of faith and making career or lifestyle changes later in life. Here are eight such inspiring stories.

Julia Child

When you think of celebrity chefs, Julia Child is likely at the top of the list. Yet her path to culinary stardom wasn’t always obvious. She was born Julia McWilliams in 1912 and worked in advertising and journalism earlier in her career; she even worked as an intelligence officer in World War II. 

After the war, she married diplomat Paul Cushing Child, whose work took the couple to France in 1948. Not much of a cook when she arrived, Child was enamored by the art of French cuisine and began to cook more frequently. She opened a cooking school in 1951 and published her seminal cookbook Mastering the Art of French Cooking in 1961 — the year she turned 49 years old.

While this cookbook definitely grabbed the attention of the public, it was Child’s TV show that propelled her to true fame. The Childs returned to the U.S. in the early 1960s, and a pilot of a program called The French Chef aired on July 26, 1962. The TV series became a regular program on February 11, 1963, with a 50-year-old Julia Child as the full-time host. 

The French Chef was broadcast into U.S. living rooms from 1963 to 1973, earning a 1965 Peabody Award and a 1966 Primetime Emmy. Child continued to have an indelible impact on the American culinary scene throughout her 60s, 70s, and 80s before passing away in 2004 at the age of 91.

Christoph Waltz

With multiple Oscars, Golden Globes, and BAFTAs to his name, Christoph Waltz has become one of the most accomplished actors of the 21st century. But Waltz’s fame wasn’t always a sure thing. His first screen acting credit was the 1976 German TV movie Der Vetter im 7. Bezirk, and he spent decades as a little-known actor in Germany before his big break. 

Then in 2009, a 52-year-old Waltz appeared as Colonel Hans Landa in the Quentin Tarantino film Inglourious Basterds. His happenstance audition arguably saved the production, as Tarantino had been ready to table the film if he didn’t find someone suitable to play this pivotal character. 

The role changed the trajectory of Waltz’s career. His sadistic performance garnered international acclaim, earned him his first Academy Award, and transformed him into one of Hollywood’s most desirable talents. He has since starred in several major blockbusters, including 2012’s Django Unchained as well as two movies in the James Bond franchise — 2015’s Spectre and 2021’s No Time To Die.

Grandma Moses

Born Anna Mary Robertson in 1860, the artist later known as Grandma Moses spent much of her life as an undiscovered talent. Robertson always had a penchant for art, though her only drawing supplies as a young child were objects such as twigs and grass. At the age of 12, she left home to work for a wealthy family, who provided her with wax crayons and chalk to draw. 

In her 20s, she married Thomas Salmon Moses, and the couple eventually moved to New York where they purchased a farm of their own. In her downtime, she kept herself entertained by making needlework pictures and quilts. But in her 70s, a painful bout of arthritis left her unable to embroider.

At the suggestion of some friends, Moses pivoted to painting, which she could still do with arthritic hands. The septuagenarian began painting colorful depictions of rural farm life that caught the eye of New York-based art collector Louis J. Caldor, who helped her showcase her works in a 1939 exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art titled “Contemporary Unknown American Painters.” 

Before long, Moses found herself at the top of the contemporary American art scene, and the press helped popularize the nickname “Grandma Moses,” based on a sobriquet she went by among friends. Moses exhibited her paintings into her 90s and painted into her 100s before passing away at the age of 101.

Colonel Harland Sanders

Few people in the fast-food world are more recognizable than Colonel Sanders — the face of Kentucky Fried Chicken clad in an all-white suit and a white goatee to boot. But before KFC’s success, “the Colonel” was merely Harland Sanders: a struggling yet determined businessman looking to make a living. 

Born in 1890, Sanders left home at age 13 to paint horse carriages and later worked as a train conductor, practiced law, sold life insurance, ran a ferryboat company, and manufactured lamps — none of which panned out in the long run. Then in 1930, at age 40, Sanders took over a service station in Corbin, Kentucky. He renamed it “Sanders’ Servistation and Cafe” and began selling the type of fried chicken he’d grown up eating. 

Travelers loved this, and Sanders realized fried chicken may be his ticket to success. He perfected his recipe in 1939, though as the story goes, he was rejected by 1,009 restaurants while trying to sell that recipe door-to-door. 

But in 1952, a man named Pete Harman opened the very first KFC franchise in South Salt Lake, Utah, after agreeing to buy the secret recipe. Sanders was 62 years old — and the Kentucky Fried Chicken brand only grew from there. 

In 1974, Sanders sold KFC to a management company, though he remained the public-facing spokesperson until his death in 1980. His name and visage, which still appears on the restaurant’s branding, soon became known in households across the country.

June Squibb

Though she’s now considered a leading lady in Hollywood, June Squibb wasn’t a household name until her 80s — roughly six decades into her career as a performer. Squibb moved to Cleveland in her early 20s to pursue a career in theater, and decades later, in her 60s, she broke into screen acting with her first movie credit in the 1990 comedy Alice. In one of her most notable roles, she appeared as Jack Nicholson’s wife in 2002’s About Schmidt. 

But Squibb’s big break didn’t come until 23 years after her film acting career began. At age 84, she played the role of Kate Grant in Nebraska, which earned her an Oscar nomination for Best Supporting Actress — and put her on the radar of casting agents across Hollywood.

Squibb has since appeared in several major TV series such as The Big Bang Theory and Grey’s Anatomy, and she lent her voice to characters in Toy Story 4, Soul, and Inside Out 2. In 2024, at the age of 94, she received her first-ever cinematic top billing as star of the action comedy Thelma.

Joy Behar

Joy Behar is a comedian and actress best known for her role as a co-host of The View. But despite entering into comedy in her late 30s, it wasn’t until her mid-50s that Behar became a household name. 

In a 2010 interview with Parade, Behar explained that she decided to start a stand-up comedy career at age 39, saying, “I was broke after my divorce, and … I got fired from my day job.” She also spent the 1980s working as a receptionist and later a producer on Good Morning America.

Behar pivoted into screen acting in the late ’80s, appearing in the short-lived sitcom Baby Boom and the 1993 comedy Manhattan Murder Mystery. She also began taking on sporadic hosting gigs, which earned her a spot on The View during its debut season in 1997, when she was 54. 

At first she was hired as a fill-in for Barbara Walters, but she soon became a permanent panelist and fan favorite. Today, Behar is the only original panel member still on The View, which has earned 31 Emmys during that time, including the 2003 Emmy for Outstanding Talk Show.

Ray Kroc

Colonel Harland Sanders isn’t the only late bloomer in the fast-food industry — there’s also Ray Kroc, the man behind the success of McDonald’s. Kroc was born in 1902 and explored several potential careers in early adulthood, none of which stuck. He worked as a pianist, musical director, and real estate salesman before going into business with a man named Earl Prince in 1939. Prince had invented a machine he called a “Multimixer” to speed up milkshake production by making five of the frozen dairy desserts at once, and Kroc became his exclusive distributor.

In 1954, at the age of 52, Kroc visited a restaurant in San Bernardino, California, in the hopes of selling a few Multimixers. The restaurant was run by brothers Richard and Maurice McDonald. Impressed by the eatery’s efficiency, Kroc worked out a deal to become the business’ franchising agent. In April 1955,  Kroc opened the very first McDonald’s restaurant east of the Mississippi River in Des Plaines, Illinois. He was 52 years old.

In 1961, at the tail end of his 50s, Kroc became sole owner of McDonald’s. The business mogul then quickly expanded the brand across the country, and both McDonald’s and Kroc himself became household names. Kroc served as McDonald’s CEO from his mid 60s until age 70, before retiring and purchasing baseball’s San Diego Padres. He spent his 70s serving as their owner until his death in 1984 at the age of 81.

Laura Ingalls Wilder

Today, Laura Ingalls Wilder is celebrated for her Little House on the Prairie series — a classic work of children’s fiction. However, those books weren’t published until late in the author’s life. 

Wilder was born in 1867 and spent her childhood years moving about the American frontier, living in areas such as Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, the Dakota Territory, and the Indian Territory located in modern Oklahoma. After working as a teacher starting in 1882, she pivoted to writing around the age of 44, penning several agricultural articles for the Missouri Ruralist, McCall’s Magazine, and The Country Gentleman — though none thrust her into the national limelight.

In 1931, Wilder completed a draft of a memoir about her early childhood experiences titled Pioneer Girl. While it wasn’t published until 2014, publishers at the time advised Wilder to adapt the story into a work of fiction — thus the Little House series was born. 

The first book, 1932’s Little House in the Big Woods, came out the same year Wilder turned 65. In total, eight novels in the series were published throughout Wilder’s late 60s and early 70s.

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Few places on Earth inspire wonder quite like a Disney theme park. With imagination, innovation, and a touch of pixie dust, Disney creates an immersive experience where the magic feels real. It’s no surprise these parks rank among the most popular worldwide; in fact, Orlando’s Magic Kingdom holds the Guinness World Record for the most visited theme park.

Of course, bringing this enchantment to life requires a massive workforce. Magic Kingdom alone employs 77,000 people, making it the largest single-site employer in the United States. At the heart of this whimsy are Disney’s “Imagineers,” the creative minds who come up with everything from carefully crafted architectural illusions to innovative scent technology.

So, what really happens behind the scenes at the “Happiest Place on Earth?” Let’s pull back the curtain to uncover the clever tricks that have kept the illusion alive for generations of guests.

“Go Away Green” and Other Unassuming Colors

More than 30,000 unique paint colors are splashed across Disney parks, covering everything from buildings and walkways to shops and attractions. The most notable of these hues are also the most inconspicuous: “Go Away Green,” a range of shades specifically designed to be ignored.

Longtime Disney employee John Hench created the color as part of a catalog later called the “Hench Color System.” When Disney Imagineers want guests to overlook unsightly but necessary features such as electrical boxes or storage sheds, they typically use Hench’s “Go Away Green” because it blends in seamlessly with the parks’ lush landscapes. There are other unobtrusive color options as well, such as “Go Away Blue,” which is intended to blend in with the sky.

Conversely, some colors are intended to stand out. In Epcot, for example, the pavement is painted a particular shade of pink to complement the color of the surrounding landscaping. This strategy is based on simple color theory and makes the greenery appear more vibrant because red and green are opposite each other on the color wheel.

“Smellitizer” Machines

Disney parks offer a full sensory experience for guests, including carefully crafted scents. This is why the delightful aromas of candy and popcorn that waft down the sidewalks of Magic Kingdom’s Mainstreet, U.S.A are no coincidence. Those are achieved using scent machines called “Smellitizers” that release fragrances throughout the parks.

Jody Jean Dreyer, the former head of synergy and special projects at Disney, emphasized in an interview with Fast Company that Imagineers are “mindful that people are using all their senses” during their visit. Scents are strongly tied to emotions and often help us form lasting memories, which is why Imagineers employ various scents to make an impact on guests and transport them into different lands, attractions, and experiences.  For instance, guests are greeted in the lobby of Disney’s Polynesian Village Resort by a perfume of hibiscus flowers, instantly transporting them to a Pacific island without leaving Orlando.

Disney has patented a technique called “scent blending” for use on rides. This technology gradually disperses scents, allowing for smooth transitions between scenes, similar to audio or video transitions in movies that are designed to be subtle, not jarring. As one scent fades, another becomes more prominent, creating a more natural, seamless experience for guests.

Forced Perspective

One of Disney’s most impressive tricks is the use of forced perspective throughout its parks, allowing buildings and landmarks to appear larger, smaller, closer, or farther away than they actually are. As explained by the popular YouTube channel Art of Engineering, forced perspective allows Disney to create “unbelievable structures that would otherwise be impossible, or at least too impractical, to construct in reality.” For instance, Disneyland’s Sleeping Beauty Castle is only 77 feet tall, but it appears to soar to greater heights thanks to this optical illusion.

On Disneyland’s Main Street, U.S.A., forced perspective is employed to make buildings appear taller than they actually are. The ground floor of each building is constructed close to normal size, while the upper floors are scaled down gradually, becoming smaller as they rise. Since our brains naturally expect each floor to be the same height, this shrinking technique creates the illusion that the buildings are much taller. This design enhances immersion, allowing Disney to achieve a grand effect without the need to construct full-scale buildings.

By contrast, the American Adventure building in Walt Disney World’s Epcot is designed to appear smaller than it actually is. Although it stands five stories tall, it appears to be only two and a half stories high. This is achieved by incorporating exaggerated architectural features, such as oversized windows and doors, in the exterior. This design choice allows the structure to have the more diminutive appearance of real-life colonial architecture while providing more internal space for theaters, a gallery, and a restaurant.

To make objects appear very far away, size alone isn’t always enough. This is where “atmospheric perspective” comes in. This concept involves adjusting the colors of objects to mimic the way color changes as light travels through the air, influenced by water droplets and small particles in the atmosphere. Those factors cause colors to fade or change. 

In the case of Disneyland’s Sleeping Beauty’s castle, warm pink hues are used on the lower towers, while the top features a cooler tone by incorporating blue. This gradation helps the landmark appear much taller and more majestic.  

“Utilidor” Tunnels

One of the secrets behind Disney’s signature magic is how effortlessly it keeps its behind-the-scenes operations hidden from guests. In fact, the guest-accessible areas of Walt Disney World’s Magic Kingdom are built on the second level of a massive structure. Beneath guests’ feet, on the actual ground level, is the “utilidor“— a portmanteau of “utility” and “corridor” — a sprawling tunnel system that quietly powers the park.

The utilidor system connects all corners of the park via 29 access points, allowing Disney’s “Cast Members” and supplies to move between areas without crossing paths with guests, preserving the immersiveness at all times. The tunnels also house essential utilities (sewer lines, electrical wiring, and plumbing) as well as staff-exclusive necessities such as dressing rooms, offices, breakrooms, and the Mouseketeeria dining facility.

While typically off-limits to the public, guests aged 16 and older can experience the utilidor by joining Disney’s Keys to the Kingdom Tour, a guided experience that allows visitors to discover this backstage area. 

High-Speed Trash Tubes

Guests won’t encounter any trash pileups at Disney’s Magic Kingdom (the most-visited Disney park in the world) thanks to an advanced trash removal system. Every 15 minutes, this underground system of vacuum tubes transports waste to a trash compactor at an astonishing 60 miles per hour. That’s as fast as TRON Lightcycle Power Run, the fastest ride at the Magic Kingdom. 

However, individual trash cans themselves aren’t connected to this system. Instead, custodians empty the hundreds of bins spread across the park into one of 17 collection stations. The waste ends up in a trash compactor behind Splash Mountain, where it’s then removed from the park.

According to CBS News, when Walt Disney was designing his first park — Disneyland in Anaheim, California — he noted that if trash cans were more than 30 steps apart, people had a tendency to litter. He decided Disney’s trash cans had to be closer together than that, and since it’s Disney, they’re no ordinary waste receptacles. They’re specially designed to blend in with their surroundings: For example, the cans in Star Wars: Galaxy’s Edge feature space-themed motifs, while the bins next to the castle are adorned with princess-pink patterns.

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Whether commuting on a train to work, riding the light rail into the city for a night out, or taking the bus across town to run an errand, the people aboard any form of public transport are likely trying to enjoy a quick and quiet trip to their destination — but sometimes the actions of a noisy or otherwise inconsiderate passenger can ruin the journey for their fellow riders. 

Those rude behaviors may include blasting music, taking up extra seats, or even talking loudly on the phone. Don’t be like that — instead, pay attention to these six etiquette tips for being a perfectly polite passenger.

Use Headphones, Not Speakers

Loud audio coming from your phone is a surefire way to earn the ire of fellow travelers, whether it be from playing music, watching a video, or having a FaceTime conversation or phone call on speaker. This increasingly common practice is known as “bare beating,” describing disruptive audio that carries throughout an entire train or bus. As anyone who’s experienced bare beating knows, that tinny sound that emanates from a phone’s speakers can be highly disruptive and grating.

Public transit companies in states including New York, Pennsylvania, and Texas remind all riders to use headphones if listening to music, as it’s considered common courtesy. There’s also an ongoing effort in the U.K. to punish violators with hefty fines, but despite the advisories and warnings, bare beating continues to spread. 

One issue is that tech companies have removed standard headphone jacks from newer models of smartphones, requiring special corded connections or Bluetooth-enabled headphones. If someone doesn’t have one of those options easily accessible, they might listen to their phone audio over the speaker anyway. But the break in etiquette also has to do with modern browsing habits.

In an interview with The New York Times, etiquette expert Myka Meier touches on the idea that “we selfishly have interests that we are able to tap into any second of any day, and we are so used to it that we forget other people around us.” That said, we suggest doing your part to limit public transit noise by either keeping track of a pair of headphones or waiting until the ride is over to use your speakers.

Avoid Obtrusive Self-Grooming

While there’s nothing wrong with quickly reapplying lipstick or combing your hair so it looks presentable, some passengers groom themselves in a way that affects other riders. One of the most egregious examples is cutting your fingernails (or even toenails, as one San Francisco rider chose to do) in the middle of the train or bus. First and foremost this is a hygiene issue, as the detritus may land on a seat or in another person’s lap, but the sound of the clicking clippers is also annoying to fellow passengers. 

But cutting one’s nails is just the tip of the iceberg. Many self-grooming habits should be taboo on public transit, including shaving, plucking hairs, or applying certain makeups — anything that causes unwanted debris. New York Magazine’s style and culture guide The Cut adds that hairsprays and powdered makeup can negatively affect the quality of the communal air that everyone has to breathe. Don’t be the reason that the person next to you on the bus starts sneezing, and keep your grooming habits at home.

Keep Personal Items Off Seats

Whether you’re riding the bus, train, or ferry, it’s a widely accepted rule that seats are for passengers — not inanimate objects. The El Metro service of Laredo, Texas has a policy that puts it well: “You’re welcome to carry belongings as long as they’re small enough to fit on your lap or at your feet. Don’t block aisles or take over the seat beside you.”

If the train or bus is empty, you can get away with it, but it’s common sense to move your bags when the seats are needed — and don’t make someone ask you to move it. Keeping a large bag on the seat next to you is depriving someone of a much-needed place to sit. Putting your belongings in the aisle will impede foot traffic, so make sure to  place the bags on your lap or use any available luggage racks. Or do what etiquette expert Louise Fox suggests with a rhyming reminder: “Take only one seat and put packages and belongings at your feet.”

Let People Exit Before Boarding

When the train doors open, it’s tempting to rush into the car in order to grab one of the few available seats. But slow down — it’s basic etiquette to let all riders exit before anyone new enters the vehicle. In an article written for Trainline, etiquette expert William Hanson says, “Let others off the train before you try and get on and stand to the side of the train doors to allow disembarking passengers to exit easily.” 

If you stand in the doorway or try to rush on, you’ll end up creating a logjam. This makes the exiting and boarding process take longer, and the more it happens, the more likely it is to cause system-wide delays. Your rush can also create difficulties for passengers with disabilities attempting to exit. 

It’s good to remember that some people may need more time or space to navigate, and being patient won’t mean you’ll miss the ride. As Hanson says, “It’s not a race.” 

Don’t Consume Odorous Food or Drink

Some foods and drinks should be avoided on public transit, such as ones with particularly pungent odors and dishes that are prone to spillage. One extreme example of offensive food is commonly found throughout Southeast Asia. A native fruit called durian is banned from many public transport services due to its pungent odor. 

In an interview with the Huffington Post, etiquette expert Diane Gottsman says, “Your favorite snack may be a plastic container full of hard-boiled eggs, but these should be enjoyed in the privacy of your own kitchen.” Even if the food smells good, a powerful odor can make other passengers nauseous in such a confined space.

But not all food is taboo. Etiquette consultant Jodi R.R. Smith told the Huffington Post that people should opt for foods that are “self-contained and minimally fragrant.” Consider crackers, dried fruit, and similar items. When it comes to drinks, stick to water if possible, and use a lid to prevent accidentally spilling all over the vehicle — or worse, onto another person.

Know the Rules for Pets

Even if your dog is well-behaved and loving, public transit is no place to let them roam freely. While exceptions are made for service animals, pets (even those dubbed emotional support animals) are subject to a clear set of rules that each passenger is expected to adhere to. 

The exact requirements may differ on each transit system, so be sure to look up the pet guidelines before your trip. The MTA — which services the New York City area and is the busiest public transit route in the country — requires pets to be contained “in a bag or other container and carried in a way that doesn’t annoy other riders.” (Some people have gotten around this rule by carrying their animals in creative bag solutions, such as large IKEA tote bags — examples of which can be seen on social media.) 

Nevertheless, the train or bus is no place for an unleashed dog, even if they’re usually a very good boy or girl. If your pet is too large to abide by these rules, consider alternative forms of transportation (such as a private rideshare) that won’t affect other riders.