The galaxy we call home is unfathomably enormous. With enough room for an estimated 100 billion planets, the Milky Way stretches about 100,000 light-years across, although estimates of its full size vary. (A light-year is the distance a beam of light travels in one year on Earth, equal to about 6 trillion miles.) Earth is situated approximately two-thirds of the way from our galaxy’s center; we’re essentially in the suburbia of the Milky Way. When we look at celestial bodies, we’re actually looking back in time, because of how far away they are and how long their light takes to reach us. The sun we see, for example, is always about 8.3 minutes old, while the light from the North Star, aka Polaris, is about 320 years old. And while we can’t actually see the center of the Milky Way, light from the area takes nearly 25,000 years to reach our planet. That means it dates back to when humans were still in the Stone Age.
The inventor of the Milky Way candy bar was inspired by space.
Mars launched the Milky Way bar in 1923 under the same name as a popular malted milkshake flavor; the galaxy was not involved. Ads claimed the candy was healthier than other treats thanks to its malted milk powder, helping Mars to sell more than 16 million bars in the product’s first year.
What we know about our galaxy is ever-expanding — much like the universe itself. Early astronomy pioneers such as Aristotle believed the Earth was the center of the universe, circled by the sun, moon, and all other cosmic matter. In 1609, Galileo’s first glimpse of the Milky Way through an improvised telescope showed its wispy appearance wasn’t a layer of clouds, as previously thought, but a vast collection of individual stars. His discoveries lent credence to the idea that Earth wasn’t the center of the universe after all. Yet it would take 300 more years for scientists to confirm that we’re not even at the center of our own galaxy — it wasn’t until 1924 that astronomer Edwin Hubble confirmed that the Milky Way is just one of many galaxies in our vast universe.
The Milky Way is called a spiral galaxy because of its pinwheel shape.
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The Milky Way goes by different names around the world.
The Milky Way is best known by that name, likely thanks to the Greeks, but stargazers elsewhere have used a variety of monikers for the band of stars and dust we call home. The galaxy is called the “Silver River” in China and Vietnam, “Backbone of the Night” in the Kalahari Desert of Southern Africa, and “Winter Way” in the Faroe Islands and some Nordic countries. Regardless of what name you use, the Milky Way is observable from nearly any place on Earth, so long as you find a spot fairly free of light pollution. Interstellar medium (aka space dust and gas) can make it tricky to observe significant detail without a telescope, but it’s still possible to see a spectacular cosmic show without any magnification.
Nicole Garner Meeker
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Nicole Garner Meeker is a writer and editor based in St. Louis. Her history, nature, and food stories have also appeared at Mental Floss and Better Report.
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Not unlike Madonna, Lady Gaga, and other world-famous divas, Miss Piggy has never deigned to use her full name among us mere mortals. If she had, more of us might know that her first name is actually short for “Pigathius,” which comes from a Greek word supposedly meaning “river of passion.” Given her tumultuous love affair with a certain green frog, it’s more than fitting. Her last name, meanwhile, is Lee, which Muppets creator Jim Henson referenced in a 1974 note describing her as “delicate and lovely” (accurate).
Miss Piggy is a New York Times bestselling author.
“Miss Piggy’s Guide to Life” spent 29 weeks on the NYT bestseller list after it debuted in 1981. The 113-page book features self-help tips and pearls of wisdom as only the porcine prima donna could offer. (Among her pointers: If troubled by crows’ feet, wear scarecrow earrings.)
Said note also revealed her original love interest: Hamilton Pigg, who, despite belonging to the same species, is also “cigar smoking — the epitome of grossness,” according to Henson. It’s no wonder their romance didn’t last as long as that of Miss Piggy and Kermit the Frog. The two have been the most famous Muppets for decades, appearing in all manner of TV shows, movies, and even theme park attractions together.
Kermit the Frog’s eyes were originally made from pingpong balls.
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Kermit the Frog has appeared on Capitol Hill.
In addition to his fellow Muppets, Kermit also cares about his fellow amphibians — so much so, in fact, that in 2008 he joined a team of conservationists and the Association of Zoos & Aquariums to promote awareness of endangered amphibians by giving a speech on Capitol Hill. A certain red friend of his from Sesame Street, Elmo, had earlier testified before a House Appropriations subcommittee to support federal funding of music education and research. With his puppeteer hunched below the witness table, Elmo sang and danced as he answered questions about how very important music is for his learning and development. That appearance, in 2002, was the first time a Muppet had appeared in an official capacity in front of Congress. Elmo appeared in the written transcript of the hearing in part as “Mr. Monster.”
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Michael Nordine is a writer and editor living in Denver. A native Angeleno, he has two cats and wishes he had more.
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Most fruits tend to have sweet smells that delight our olfactory systems and make our mouths water. One, however, has a reputation for being so noxious that many people can’t make it past the rind to its sweet center — or even stand to be in the same room with it. The durian fruit, sometimes called the “king of fruit” in Southeast Asia (where it’s native), is so unpleasantly fragrant that it is banned from public transportation in Singapore. The spiky fruit is also often prohibited in hotels and outdoor public spaces in the region.
Each pineapple is made up of many berries, which develop around a single core and eventually merge. Every scale on a pineapple was once a flower.
Describing the odor associated with durians is no easy feat. Some chefs and adventurous eaters have likened it to rotten eggs, pungent cheese, or sweaty gym socks, though lovers of the fruit say the smell is worth enduring for its creamy flesh, which tastes of caramel and almonds.
Yet that unpleasant aroma can be so overwhelming it causes confusion and complaints. On at least two occasions in Australia, the fruit’s lingering scent was powerful enough to be mistaken for a natural gas leak. In 2018, passengers on an Indonesian flight refused to board a plane loaded with more than 2 tons of durian in the cargo hold because of the intense smell. Scientists believe durian fruit’s nauseating aroma comes from a higher-than-usual number of genes for volatile sulfur compounds, which become “turbocharged” as the fruit ripens. However, the scent has a beneficial purpose for the plants themselves: It’s likely durian fruit trees evolved to use the sour stench as a way to attract animals that dine on the fruit and spread the seeds throughout wild areas.
The world’s largest tree fruit, jackfruit, can weigh up to 100 pounds.
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The Supreme Court once ruled that tomatoes are vegetables.
It’s a popular fun fact that tomatoes are botanically fruits, but in the U.S. they’ve been considered vegetables — legally — since the late 19th century. The Tariff Act of 1883 required produce importers to pay taxes on foreign-grown produce shipped into the country, specifically vegetables (fruits were exempt). Importers — such as New York’s Nix family — believed they could evade the 10% tax by dealing in tomatoes, since the vine-growing crop is a fruit. A fight with the New York Port Authority led the Nixes to argue their point in court, and after six years, the case made its way to the Supreme Court. Despite the Nixes’ argument being biologically correct, the Port Authority won the case on two points: Tomatoes are related to several nightshade vegetables such as potatoes and peppers, and unlike other fruits are typically served with dinner instead of dessert. Ultimately, the ruling closed the tomato tax controversy for good.
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Nicole Garner Meeker is a writer and editor based in St. Louis. Her history, nature, and food stories have also appeared at Mental Floss and Better Report.
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Years before Edgar Allan Poe wrote “The Raven,” Charles Dickens had an actual pet raven. The endlessly influential author of A Christmas Carol and David Copperfield was a bit eccentric, as many great artists are, and in 1841 wrote a letter to a friend in which he revealed that the protagonist of his new novel would be “always in company with a pet raven, who is immeasurably more knowing than himself. To this end I have been studying my bird, and think I could make a very queer character of him.” That novel was Barnaby Rudge: A Tale of the Riots of Eighty, published later the same year, and the bird in question was the beloved Grip. Grip had a habit of eating and drinking paint, alas, and died (probably as a result of doing what he loved) just a few weeks after that letter was sent. Dickens later had two more pet ravens, also named Grip.
Dickens’ 1834 short story “The Boarding-House” was published under the name Boz, as was the 1839 compilation of essays and short stories “Sketches by Boz.” The pen name came from “Moses,” Dickens’ nickname for his brother, which he pronounced closer to “Boses” and eventually shortened.
As for Poe’s famous poem, there’s reason to suggest he drew inspiration from Grip. Dickens sent a manuscript of Barnaby Rudge to Poe, who wrote back that he enjoyed it but felt that the raven should have played a larger role. “The Raven” was published just a few years later, in 1845. Dickens, for his part, was so fond of dear old Grip that he had the bird taxidermied; today it sits atop a log in the Free Library of Philadelphia, where it can be visited by the public.
To say that the author didn’t want a big funeral would be an understatement. Dickensstipulated in his will that “no public announcement be made of the time or place of my burial” and originally wanted his final resting place to be “in the small graveyard under Rochester Castle wall, or in the little churches of Cobham or Shorne,” which were near his country home. His will also dictated that he was to be “buried in an inexpensive, unostentatious, and strictly private manner,” which isn’t what happened. He was instead interred in Westminster Abbey’s Poets’ Corner in part at the behest of Arthur Stanley, then the Dean of Westminster, as well as Dickens’ biographer John Forster. Though only a dozen people attended his private funeral on June 14, 1870,thousands showed up to pay their respects over the next two days.
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Michael Nordine is a writer and editor living in Denver. A native Angeleno, he has two cats and wishes he had more.
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Although his name draws scant recognition from most today, John Duns Scotus was among the towering intellectual figures of medieval Europe. A Scottish Catholic priest and Franciscan friar, Scotus earned renown in the late 13th and early 14th centuries for his compelling arguments regarding the univocity of all creatures — i.e., humans are beings just as God is a being — and for his defense of the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary. His academic achievements earned him the prestigious post of regent master of theology at the University of Paris, while his scrupulous reasoning yielded the nickname “Doctor Subtilis” — the Subtle Doctor.
National Dunce Day is celebrated on the anniversary of John Duns Scotus’ death.
Grouped among other lesser-known commemorations such as National Sandwich Day and King Tut Day, National Dunce Day is indeed observed on the anniversary of Scotus’ accepted death date of November 8, 1308.
However, by the late 16th century, Europe’s rising humanist movement had taken aim at the old-fashioned rationale of the Scotists, and the Dunsmen (also known as the Duns), as his followers were known, were derided as outdated and overly pedantic. Eventually, the term “dunce” came to refer to someone who was slow or dim-witted. It’s not entirely clear exactly when dunce caps came on the scene, but they may have been modeled on the fools’ caps worn by jesters or clowns, and by 1791 they were being put on the heads of British schoolchildren who had made too many mistakes in class or otherwise misbehaved. (Some accounts say the Subtle Doctor and his followers actually wore such hats themselves because they believed the conical shape would capture free-flowing knowledge, but evidence is lacking.)
Whether adorned with a telltale “D” or other embellishments like donkey ears, the dunce cap served as a common if crude form of punishment across European and American schools in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Although it largely disappeared from the American education system by the 1950s, the concept survives in popular culture as a visual shorthand for stupidity. But don’t feel too bad for Scotus. He was beatified by Pope John II in 1993, and renewed interest in his works in recent years has reaffirmed the decidedly non-dunce-like essence of his brain-twisting logic.
The Scotist term for “thisness,” a feature that makes every person unique, is “haecceity.”
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Vanderbilt University researchers have created a real-life “thinking cap.”
While students have dutifully heeded instructions to don their thinking caps for generations, even the dunces among us grasp the concept of its existence being metaphorical as opposed to physical. In recent years, however, a team led by Vanderbilt University psychologists has developed something resembling a real-life thinking cap designed to stimulate and measure brain activity. This futuristic-sounding piece of headwear is actually just a cloth EEG cap fitted with tin disks. After electrodes are attached to a subject’s head and face, through which mild electrical currents are applied, the disks record brain waves as the subject undertakes a learning task. Early rounds of testing have shown that subjects learn faster when a current is directed from the top of the head to the cheek, with the effects of this stimulation lasting for about five hours. While it’s highly unlikely this electrical setup will appear in elementary school classrooms any time soon, its proponents have suggested that the caps could provide a boost to people suffering from neurological disorders or brain injuries.
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In the United Kingdom, black currants are a go-to flavor for candies, beverages, and some medications, but less than an estimated 1% of Americans have ever sampled the fruit. The small, purple-black berries (which taste like ablueberry-cranberry blend) grow in clusters on the Ribes nigrum bush, and were once enjoyed by American colonists and early presidents. In 1899, anestimated 12,000 acres of commercial farmland were dedicated to this crop, which washarvested for wine, baked into pies, and preserved as jam — but the success of American black currants was short-lived, thanks to an ecological snafu.
Black currants are high in vitamin C, a deficiency of which causes scurvy. During World War II, when import blockades made citrus harder to find, the British government distributed Ribena — a black currant juice beloved by Brits — as a vitamin C supplement.
In the early 1900s, researchers discovered that pine trees near black currant plantings often became sick with a type of fungus known as white pine blister rust. The disease causes lesions on branches and trunks; as the blisters spread, the tree begins to die, and its evergreen needles turn a rusty hue. In an effort to protect the white pine logging industry —one of the most valuable in the nation at the time, and worth up to $1 billion — Congress banned black currants in 1911, going so far as to destroy currant farms with herbicides. Five decades later, botanists lobbied in favor of a return to currant farming, arguing that newly developed bushes were disease-resistant and posed little risk when planted away from pine trees. But despite federal approval for growing the currants in 1966, many states upheld their bans. Connecticut’s 1929 law fined anyone in possession of currant plants up to $25 until 1988, and New York — the top currant producer of old — held out until 2003. Today, black currants are making a slow comeback, with berry farmers in New York, Minnesota, Connecticut, and elsewhere hoping these fast-growing vines will be restored to their former glory.
Black currant Skittles are replaced with grape-flavored candies in the U.S.
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Bristlecone pine trees keep their needles for 30 years.
Pine trees are known among arborists for their longevity, with some species living 300 to 500 years. Bristlecone pines are especially long-lived, with the slow-growing elders of the species reaching nearly 5,000 years old. Bristlecones are in no rush to grow, a feature that helps these hardy conifers survive in challenging climates. Primarily found among the Sierra Nevada and Rocky Mountain ranges, the trees survive despite short growing seasons, often intensely cold temperatures, rocky soils, and winds that form their trunks and branches into gnarly twists. To thrive, the trees conserve much of their energy by retaining their needles; unlike other pine trees that replace their bristly leaves every two to seven years, bristlecones hold onto their needles for about 30 years or more.
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Nicole Garner Meeker is a writer and editor based in St. Louis. Her history, nature, and food stories have also appeared at Mental Floss and Better Report.
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Many of us consider blushing embarrassing, but Charles Darwin called it “the most peculiar and the most human of all expressions.” There’s a good reason for that: We’re quite literally the only species known to do it, aside from birds (although researchers are still teasing out whether our feathered friends blush for the same reasons we do). Whether the result of committing a social faux pas or just being paid a compliment, the involuntary reaction occurs in humans when the blood vessels in our face dilate and more blood flows to our cheeks. Part of our fight-or-flight response, it also entails an adrenaline rush and an increased heart rate. The reaction may be mostly unique to humans in part because our facial skin is relatively well exposed, and because embarrassment requires knowing (or imagining) what others are thinking about you — pretty complex cognitive stuff, actually.
It isn’t just your cheeks that turn red when you blush. The same thing happens to your stomach lining, a response caused by the sympathetic nervous system increasing blood flow throughout the body.
For all that, we still don’t know exactly why we blush. Some theorize that it helps keep us honest (it can’t be faked, after all), while one study suggests that blushing after a social transgression “serves to signal the actor’s genuine regret or remorse over a wrongdoing” — in other words, it acts as physical evidence that we know we’ve made a mistake. This, in turn, makes others more likely to not only forgive our slight but also view us in a more favorable light. This is doubly true when it results from being given a compliment — who doesn’t find that reaction endearing? Maybe it’s not so embarrassing after all.
In the Middle Ages, wealthy women used a combination of strawberries and water as blush.
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Blushing has a phobia associated with it.
It’s called erythrophobia, and it’s most common in those who experience such severe blushing that they avoid situations that might cause it — think public speaking or meeting new people. If a person is embarrassed by the fact that they’re blushing, this can often cause them to blush more; for some, reddening of the skin extends to the upper chest, neck, and ears. This often goes hand in hand with social anxiety, with each condition intensifying the other. The good news is that there are ways to mitigate or even move past erythrophobia, including exposure therapy and general mindfulness.
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If you’ve ever wondered what appears on Cookie Monster’s birth certificate, the answer isn’t “Cookie Monster” — it’s “Sid.” Sesame Street’s resident cookie-lover joins the likes of Cap’n Crunch (Horatio Magellan Crunch), Yoshi (T. Yoshisaur Munchakoopas), and other fictional characters who have “real” names you might not know. (Speaking of Sesame Street, Snuffleupagus’ first name is actually Aloysius.) Cookie Monster revealed his actual name in the 2004 segment “The First Time Me Eat Cookie,” which includes the line, “In fact, back then, me think me name was Sid.” Despite this, many were still shocked when, in October 2022, the character tweeted, “Did you know me name is Sid? But me still like to be called Cookie Monster.”
In his original drawings of the character, Jim Henson designed Oscar the Grouch as a “spiky, grumpy-looking magenta monster.” But because early color TVs didn’t handle magenta well, Oscar’s color was changed to orange. He didn’t premiere his current look until the second season.
Though he made waves with the 2004 song “A Cookie Is a Sometimes Food,” Cookie Monster’s love of his namesake treat remains undiminished — and no, he isn’t going to change his name to Veggie Monster. Sid was designed by Jim Henson for an unaired General Foods Canada commercial in 1966, made his Sesame Street debut on the beloved show’s first episode three years later, and has remained a fan favorite in the more than half-century since.
While still in the development stage, the show was going to be called 123 Avenue B. There were two overlapping problems with that title, however: It was a real address in New York City, and the creators feared that viewers outside the city wouldn’t be intrigued by it. Sesame Street was chosen in part to evoke the “Open, sesame” command from “Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves,” a story in One Thousand and One Nights. Traces of the original title can be found in the show’s most famous address — 123 Sesame Street — a two-story brownstone apartment where Bert and Ernie live.
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Pigeons tend to get a bad rap among urban dwellers, but the birds have a distinguished history of service. Bred for their instinctive ability to find their way home from long distances, homing pigeons were trained as message-bearers as far back as in ancient Egypt. With their deployment by besieged Parisians during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, the era of the military pigeon was underway.
Pigeons can recognize letters of the alphabet and learn words.
A 2016 study demonstrated that pigeons could be trained to pick out words from a group of nonwords, marking the first time that a nonprimate was shown to have an orthographic brain.
By the time the United States entered World War I, homing pigeons were being used on both sides of the fighting for their ability to reliably deliver progress updates from planes, tanks, and mobile lofts on the front lines. While telephone and radio communications were more advanced heading into World War II, there were still times when conditions rendered such technologies useless, and the only solution was to strap a message to a pigeon and send it airborne through a hail of gunfire. Sometimes, a lone bird’s efforts saved the lives of hundreds of soldiers: One such instance occurred in Italy in 1943, when an American pigeon named G.I. Joe was dispatched to an Allied air base in the nick of time to call off the planned bombing of a village that had just been liberated by British troops.
That year, White Vision, Winkie, and Tyke became the first three of the 32 pigeons to receive the People’s Dispensary for Sick Animals (PDSA) Dickin Medal for exceptional wartime accomplishments. Although the award came into being too late to honor pigeon predecessors like Cher Ami and President Wilson, the more recent creation of the Honorary PDSA Dickin Medal in 2014 honored all the winged warriors and other service animals who served during World War I. And although the PDSA is based in the U.K., the Dickin Medal is awarded to animals in theaters of war around the world, and recognized worldwide.
The sense that enables pigeons to perceive direction via Earth’s magnetic field is magnetoreception.
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One cat has won the Dickin Medal.
That would be Simon, a tomcat who had the misfortune of getting caught in the strife of the Chinese Civil War in 1949. A crew mascot aboard the British HMS Amethyst, Simon sustained shrapnel injuries when the ship was attacked and cornered by communist forces on the Yangtze River. Not only did Simon get back on his feet and provide comfort to his rattled shipmates, but he also fought off the rats that attempted to raid the dwindling food supply as the crew waited for weeks for safe passage to freedom. Simon then became something of a celebrity after the Amethyst made news with its escape to Hong Kong, with a designated “cat officer” assigned to handle his fan mail. Sadly, the battle-scarred feline died shortly before he was scheduled to receive his Dickin Medal late in 1949, although TIME magazine provided an additional salute by featuring his picture on its obituary page.
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The ancient Egyptians are known for many firsts. Hieroglyphics, papyrus, the calendar, and even bowling all come from the minds of the ancient people along the Nile. Egyptians were also some of the first to pay particular attention to oral care. They invented the first breath mint, toothpicks have been found alongside mummies, and they created the oldest known formula for toothpaste.
Teeth and bones are the hardest materials in the human body, but they’re very different. Bones are made of living tissue, so they’re constantly growing or regenerating throughout your life. Teeth are not living tissue, and are the only part of the human body that doesn’t regenerate.
One of the earliest medicinal texts, the Ebers Papyrus contains an astoundingly accurate understanding of the human circulatory system as well as an assortment of medicinal remedies. Written around 1550 BCE, this ancient text also describes an ancient form of toothpaste. This early dentifrice was likely made from ingredients such as ox hooves, ashes, burnt eggshells, and pumice (a type of volcanic rock), but by the fourth century CE, when Egypt was under Roman rule, the recipe evolved to include salt, pepper, mint, and dried iris flower, based on descriptions in another papyrus. Egyptians may have applied the paste with toothbrushes made from frayed twigs.
Although Egyptian toothpaste may seem unrecognizable compared to the science-y ingredients found in modern tubes of Colgate or Crest, these ancient toothpaste recipes essentially do the same thing. Modern toothpaste uses materials known as abrasives to remove gunk from teeth, lessening the potential for decay and cavities. While Egyptians used salt and pepper (or pumice) for this task, today we use hydrated silica for that same abrasive purpose — though thankfully it’s gentler on our gums. And the mint the Egyptians used helped freshen their breath, just as today’s mint-flavored toothpaste does. So while our modern tubes of toothpaste are a relatively modern creation, cleaning our teeth is a habit that goes back at least as far as the ancients.
Invented in China in 1498, the first modern toothbrush used coarse hair from a hog for bristles.
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Agriculture is why so many people need braces.
Every year millions of people get braces or have their wisdom teeth pulled. That’s because there isn’t enough dental real estate in the average human mouth. Although a boon for the dental profession, humanity’s mass malocclusion (or misalignment of teeth) wasn’t always this way. In our distant past, before we put down the hunting bow for the dirt-churning plow, human jaws comfortably accommodated all the teeth in our mouth. Yes, even our wisdom teeth. A study in 2015 analyzed the lower jaws of 292 skeletons ranging from 28,000 to 6,000 years old — an age range that straddles our adoption of agriculture some 12,000 years ago. Scientists noticed that early farmers had smaller jaws than their hunter-gatherer forebears. This is likely because before agriculture, Homo sapiens chomped hard-shelled nuts, uncooked vegetables, and tough meats, which required larger, stronger jaws. With the advent of farming, diets consisted of softer foods like beans and cereals, causing the size of the human jaw to decline over time because it’s not subject to the same amount of chewing time. Although our jaws are smaller, our number of teeth has remained the same, leading to the dental traffic jam experienced by millions today.
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Darren Orf lives in Portland, has a cat, and writes about all things science and climate. You can find his previous work at Popular Mechanics, Inverse, Gizmodo, and Paste, among others.
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