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Our friends in ancient Rome indulged in a lot of activities that we would find unseemly today — including and especially gladiators fighting to the death — but they drew the line at eating butter. To do so was considered barbaric, with Pliny the Elder going so far as to call butter “the choicest food among barbarian tribes.” In addition to a general disdain for drinking too much milk, Romans took issue with butter specifically because they used it for treating burns and thus thought of it as a medicinal salve, not a food. 

Rome was founded by twin brothers Romulus and Remus.

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It’s a great story, but it’s just that — a story. The mythological siblings who were nursed by a she-wolf after being sent down the River Tiber in a basket have long been a key part of Roman mythology.

They weren’t alone in their contempt. The Greeks also considered the dairy product uncivilized, and “butter eater” was among the most cutting insults of the day. In both cases, this can be partly explained by climate — butter didn’t keep as well in warm southern climates as it did in northern Europe, where groups such as the Celts gloried in their butter. Instead, the Greeks and Romans relied on olive oil, which served a similar purpose. To be fair, though, Romans considered anyone who lived beyond the Empire’s borders (read: most of the world) to be barbarians, so butter eaters were in good company.

Numbers Don't Lie

Numbers Don't Lie

Year (BCE) the Roman Empire was founded
27
Maximum capacity of the Colosseum
50,000
Pints of milk required to make 1 pound of butter
21
Calories in a tablespoon of butter
100

The bestselling butter brand in America is ______.

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The bestselling butter brand in America is Land O’Lakes.

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Nero didn’t actually fiddle while Rome burned.

It would have been impossible for him to do so, as the fiddle didn’t exist yet. That’s not to say that Nero was a good emperor (or person), however. In addition to murdering his mother, first wife, and possibly his second wife as well, Nero may have even started the infamous fire that burned for six days in 64 CE and destroyed 70% of the city so that he could expand his Golden Palace and nearby gardens. (Or at least, that’s what some of the populace and some ancient writers suspected.) For all that, Rome’s fifth emperor wasn’t entirely reviled during his time — and it’s been suggested that his cruelty was at least somewhat exaggerated by later historians who were looking to smear his dynastic line, known as the Julio-Claudians. And he was a gifted musician who played the cithara, an ancient stringed instrument similar to a lyre — just not the fiddle.

Michael Nordine
Staff Writer

Michael Nordine is a writer and editor living in Denver. A native Angeleno, he has two cats and wishes he had more.

Original photo by Allstar Picture Library Ltd/ Alamy Stock Photo

Like many classic Hollywood stars, Joan Crawford was known by a stage name rather than her real name. Born Lucille Fay LeSueur, the future Oscar winner made her silver-screen debut in 1925’s Lady of the Night under her birth name. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, which had signed her to a $75-a-week contract, saw potential in the starlet but feared her name would be a hindrance; Pete Smith, the head of publicity at MGM, thought her surname sounded too much like the word “sewer.” 

So the upper brass at MGM landed on a novel solution: a contest run in the fan magazine Movie Weekly, which offered between $50 and $500 for coming up with a new name for “a beautiful young screen actress.” The perfect name, according to MGM, “must be moderately short and euphonious. It must not imitate the name of some already established artiste. It must be easy to spell, pronounce, and remember. It must be impressive and suitable to the bearer’s type.”

No one’s sure when Joan Crawford was born.

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Though biographers know her birthday was March 23, the year has been listed as 1904, 1905, 1906, and 1908 by various sources.

The winner, as fate would have it, wasn’t Joan Crawford; it was Joan Arden, which was already the name of an extra who threatened to sue MGM. And so the second-place winner was chosen instead, not that the new Joan Crawford was happy about it — she initially hated the name before making the most of it.

Numbers Don't Lie

Numbers Don't Lie

Academy Award nominations received by Crawford
3
Crawford’s estimated net worth (adjusted for inflation)
$10.5 million
Crawford movies selected for preservation in the National Film Registry
5
Years Crawford spent under contract with MGM
18

Crawford’s fourth husband was chairman of the board at ______.

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Crawford’s fourth husband was chairman of the board at Pepsi-Cola.

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Crawford accepted her Oscar from bed.

After a string of hits in the late 1920s and early ’30s, Crawford’s luck so reversed itself that she was deemed “box-office poison” in TIME magazine by the end of the decade. Her comeback wasn’t fully solidified until she took the title role in 1945’s Mildred Pierce, which resulted in her sole Academy Award — not that she was expecting to win.

Believing Ingrid Bergman would take home the Oscar for The Bells of St. Mary’s, Crawford was disinclined to attend any ceremony where she wouldn’t be victorious and opted to feign illness. Upon learning she’d won, however, she put on her makeup, invited members of the press to her bedroom, and accepted the statuette from the comfort of her own bed.

Michael Nordine
Staff Writer

Michael Nordine is a writer and editor living in Denver. A native Angeleno, he has two cats and wishes he had more.

Original photo by Hans Vivek/ Unsplash

The world’s largest coffeehouse chain, Starbucks, almost had a very different name. According to a 2008 Seattle Times interview with the company’s co-founder Gordon Bowker, the famous java chain was once “desperately close” to being called “Cargo House,” a name meant to tie the first store (in Seattle’s Pike Place Market) to the idea of beans coming from far away. Anxious for another, more pleasing moniker, a brand consultant working with Bowker mentioned that words starting with “st” felt especially strong. Bowker ran with the idea, listing every “st” word he could think of. The breakthrough moment occurred after the consultant brought out some old maps of the Cascade mountains and Mount Rainier — both close to the company’s hometown of Seattle — and Bowker stumbled across an old mining town named “Starbo.” The name lit up a literary reference embedded in his mind: Starbuck. 

The musician Moby is related to Herman Melville, the author of “Moby-Dick.”

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Born Richard Melville Hall but nicknamed “Moby” as a baby, the musician says he’s the great-great-great-nephew of author Herman Melville. In 2016, Moby followed in his ancestor’s publishing footsteps and came out with a memoir titled “Porcelain.” He has since released a second memoir.

The name comes from Herman Melville’s 1851 masterpiece Moby-Dick; or, The Whale. In the novel, Starbuck is a Quaker and trusty first mate of Captain Ahab, and serves as the voice of reason aboard the whaling ship Pequod (another name the Starbucks co-founders considered). Melville himself likely got the name Starbuck from a real whaling family that lived on the Massachusetts island of Nantucket in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Bowker readily admits that the character has nothing to do with coffee, but the moniker stuck, and the company doubled down on the nautical theme by introducing a mythological siren, likely influenced by a seventh-century Italian mosaic, as its now-famous green-and-white logo.

Numbers Don't Lie

Numbers Don't Lie

Year of the whale attack on the ship Essex, which later inspired “Moby-Dick”
1820
Percentage of Americans who drink coffee every day
62%
Number of copies of “Moby-Dick” sold in Herman Melville’s lifetime
3,715
Premiere year of “Battlestar Galactica,” starring Dirk Benedict as Lieutenant Starbuck
1978

In Homer’s “The Odyssey,” the siren has the head of a woman and the body of a ______.

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In Homer’s “The Odyssey,” the siren has the head of a woman and the body of a bird.

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Coffee beans are not actually beans.

Two types of flowering shrubs from the family Rubiaceae, Coffea robusta and Coffea arabica, make up most of the coffee consumed in the world. These plants produce a sweet, reddish-yellow cherry-like fruit, and its seeds or pits — when roasted from light to dark — make the coffee beverage we know and love today. However, calling these seeds “beans” is a misnomer, since a “bean” technically refers to an edible seed from the plant family Fabaceae (also called Leguminosae), which includes foods such as soybeans, peas, chickpeas, and peanuts. Coffee seeds look much like a typical bean, but from a strict botanical perspective, they’re not. In fact, since coffee cherries are fruits, you might argue that your usual cup of joe has more in common with a smoothie than any sort of legume-heavy delicacy.

Darren Orf
Writer

Darren Orf lives in Portland, has a cat, and writes about all things science and climate. You can find his previous work at Popular Mechanics, Inverse, Gizmodo, and Paste, among others.

Carolyn/ Adobe Stock

The word “hippopotamus” means “river horse” in Greek, which makes sense given the amount of time — about 16 hours a day — these massive creatures spend in the water. But as it turns out, hippos can’t actually swim or even float. Their dense bones and heavy bodies cause them to sink, and their short legs and broad structure aren’t built for moving through water as easily as other aquatic mammals. 

What they can do, thanks to that density, is stand sturdily on a waterbed’s floor and walk or bounce along the ground. With their eyes and nostrils located high on their heads, they can still see and breathe while almost completely submerged.

Dolphins can recognize themselves in the mirror.

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Dolphins recognize their own reflection as early as 7 months old, showing self awareness even earlier than human babies.

Although they prefer the shallower parts of lakes, rivers, and swamps — typically around 6 feet deep — they’ve been observed in waters as deep as 40 feet, which they can propel themselves above by leaping like porpoises off the bottom. Even when they sleep, they can hold their breath for only about five minutes before an automatic reflex ensures they rise to the surface for air so they can rest without drowning.

The water isn’t just a playground for these creatures — it’s vital to their survival. Staying submerged helps keep their sensitive skin cool and hydrated under the hot African sun. It isn’t until dusk that they emerge and spend the next eight hours or so on land, grazing on grasses, before returning to their aquatic refuge when the sun reappears.

Numbers Don't Lie

Numbers Don't Lie

Degrees a hippo can open its jaw
~180
Length (in minutes) of the longest human breath hold underwater
29
Visitors to Khao Kheow Open Zoo for pygmy hippo Moo Deng’s 1st birthday
12,000+
Pounds of food hippos eat each day
~88

The hippo’s closest living relative is the ______.

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The hippo’s closest living relative is the whale.

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The kid who sang “I Want a Hippopotamus for Christmas” actually got one.

In 1953, 10-year-old Oklahoma child Gayla Peevey recorded the quirky holiday tune “I Want a Hippopotamus for Christmas.” After the song became a hit, an Oklahoma City zoo and a local newspaper launched a statewide funding drive, encouraging people to chip in so they could give Peevey the very thing she sang about.

Donations poured in, and by Christmas, a baby hippopotamus named Mathilda was sent to Oklahoma City. Peevey gave the hippo to Oklahoma’s Lincoln Park Zoo, making Mathilda  the zoo’s first hippo, and appeared alongside zookeepers and the media to help welcome Mathilda to her new home. 

Nicole Villeneuve
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Nicole is a writer, thrift store lover, and group-chat meme spammer based in Ontario, Canada.

Original photo by Allstar Picture Library Ltd/ Alamy Stock Photo

With apologies to anyone who already found The Birds terrifying while under the impression that it was wholly fictional: Alfred Hitchcock’s avian thriller was partly based on a true story. Said event took place on California’s Monterey Bay in August 1961, when “thousands of crazed seabirds” called sooty shearwaters were seen regurgitating anchovies and flying into objects before dying on the streets. The Master of Suspense happened to live in the area and called the Santa Cruz Sentinel — which had reported on the strange goings-on in its August 18 edition — for more information. Long after his movie was released two years later, the bizarre event remained shrouded in mystery: What would inspire birds to act this way, and were they as malicious as they seemed in Hitchcock’s movie?

“The Birds” features a cameo by Hitchcock.

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As he did in more than 30 of his other films, Hitchcock briefly appears in “The Birds.” The cameo comes just two minutes in, when the director is seen leaving a pet shop with two white terriers (his own pups Geoffrey and Stanley) as Tippi Hedren’s character enters.

The truth ended up being both straightforward and a little sad. The scientific consensus is now that the birds were poisoned by toxic algae found in a type of plankton called Pseudo-nitzschia. The birds weren’t attacking anyone; they were disoriented and barely in control of their actions. That explanation is absent from Hitchcock’s thriller, which also drew inspiration from Daphne du Maurier’s short story of the same name. (Hitchcock’s Rebecca was also a du Maurier adaptation.) A resounding success, The Birds is widely considered one of Hitchcock’s greatest works, alongside Psycho, Vertigo, Rear Window, and North by Northwest.

Numbers Don't Lie

Numbers Don't Lie

Rotten Tomatoes score for 2012’s “Hitchcock” biopic
60%
Year “The Birds” was added to the National Film Registry
2016
Oscar nomination received by “The Birds,” for Best Special Effects
1
Episodes of “Alfred Hitchcock Presents”
268

Hitchcock worked with artist ______ on a dream sequence in the film “Spellbound.”

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Hitchcock worked with artist Salvador Dalí on a dream sequence in the film “Spellbound.”

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One of Hitchcock’s earliest films is lost.

A full 86% of American-made films from the silent era (1912-1929) are considered lost, meaning they don’t survive as complete works in their original form. Among them is one by the Master of Suspense himself: 1926’s The Mountain Eagle, the second feature he ever directed. Though some production stills remain, all prints of the Kentucky-set melodrama have been lost. Hitchcock completists have spent the better part of a century bemoaning this, but he wasn’t especially bothered by it — he once referred to it as “a very bad movie.” Even so, the British Film Institute has long included The Mountain Eagle on its 10 Most Wanted list of lost films.

Michael Nordine
Staff Writer

Michael Nordine is a writer and editor living in Denver. A native Angeleno, he has two cats and wishes he had more.

Original photo by Maximum Film/ Alamy Stock Photo

New parents are responsible for a lot: feeding a hungry baby, keeping track of naps while not sleeping much themselves, and in one instance, saving years of their co-workers’ hard work. At least that was the case for Galyn Susman, the Pixar technical director credited with bringing Toy Story 2 back from the depths of deletion in 1998. Susman, a new parent out of office on maternity leave, was notified that 90% of the film had been accidentally deleted thanks to a software snafu; what’s worse, the studio’s on-site backups had failed. Miraculously, Susman had copies of the film on her laptop, which she had been working on during her leave. The laptop was wrapped in blankets and gingerly carted back to the Pixar studio, where the files ended up saving the production.

Walt Disney created the first full-length animated film.

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Disney’s early cartoons are film industry icons, but they weren’t the first of their kind. Argentinian illustrator Quirino Cristiani completed “El Apóstol,” the first feature-length animated film, in 1917 — 20 years before “Snow White”— but lost the political satire to a fire.

Susman’s copy of Toy Story 2 wasn’t the one that ended up on the big screen, but for good reason. The first Toy Story film debuted in 1995 and was a box-office success, drawing three Oscar nominations and winning the Academy’s Special Achievement Award as the first feature film created entirely with computer animation. But when it came to Toy Story 2, Disney and Pixar planned for the sequel to skip theaters altogether, opting for a direct-to-video production. During the animation process, Pixar creatives successfully advocated for a full theatrical release; however, that meant reworking the entire film in less than nine months before its scheduled November 1999 release date. The tight turnaround paid off: Toy Story 2 became the third-highest-grossing film that year, and today remains a beloved chapter in the Toy Story franchise.

Numbers Don't Lie

Numbers Don't Lie

Slinky Dogs sold in 1995 after the debut of “Toy Story”
800,000
Global box-office returns for all four “Toy Story” films
$3 billion
Running time (in minutes) of “Toy Story 2”
92
Critic Roger Ebert’s rating (out of four stars) for “Toy Story 2”
3.5

Before making “Toy Story,” Pixar made computer-animated ______.

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Before making “Toy Story,” Pixar made computer-animated commercials.

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Toy companies initially thought the “Toy Story” films would flop.

A scene in Toy Story 2 pokes fun at a real-life gaffe made by toy companies: failing to see that the animated franchise would be a major moneymaker. Disney approached toy manufacturers nearly a year before the first film’s release, hoping to produce a line of character action figures and dolls. But two big-name companies — Hasbro and Mattel — turned down the licensing opportunity, worried the computer-animated film would be a flop, and that there wasn’t even enough time to create the toys. A small Canadian toy maker landed the gig, but couldn’t keep up with orders. By Christmas of 1996, the film was so popular and demand for a limited stock of Toy Story figurines was so high that desperate parents paid more than four times the retail price from unscrupulous sellers. The holiday shopping fallout has since been immortalized in the first Toy Story sequel, in which Barbie cheerfully relays the tale of the toy shortage — a situation Disney made sure not to repeat with each subsequent movie release.

Nicole Garner Meeker
Writer

Nicole Garner Meeker is a writer and editor based in St. Louis. Her history, nature, and food stories have also appeared at Mental Floss and Better Report.

Original photo by empire331/ iStock

The first dinosaur fossil was discovered in 1677 — not that the man who came upon it realized the magnitude of his find. The English naturalist Robert Plot thought that his discovery had belonged to a giant human, and it wasn’t until 1824 that the geologist William Buckland identified the bone for what it was. It took an additional 18 years for Sir Richard Owen, the most famed paleontologist of his era, to coin the term “dinosauria” — deinos meaning “terrible” or “fearfully great” in Greek, and sauros meaning “lizard.” True lizards and dinosaurs diverged from one another 270 million years ago, but the name stuck nevertheless. 

Land-dwelling dinosaurs and humans lived on Earth at the same time.

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Despite what “The Flintstones” led us to believe, humans never shared the planet with velociraptors, triceratops, or other non-avian dinosaurs. Early human ancestors first appeared in Africa some 6 million years ago, or 60 million years after the dinosaurs’ reign ended.

Suffice to say that the schoolteacher who called a young Owen “impudent” would have been surprised by his lasting scientific contributions, which also include describing many new species and founding London’s Natural History Museum. Owen later went on to feud with none other than Charles Darwin over their respective views on evolution. Owen developed his own influential theory of how animals developed, and disagreed with how Darwin interpreted it in On the Origin of Species — as well as with Darwin’s entire concept of natural selection. As a result, Owen’s scientific reputation has suffered, but we can still thank him for every 7-year-old’s favorite word.

Numbers Don't Lie

Numbers Don't Lie

Named species of non-avian dinosaurs
700
Minutes of dinosaur footage in “Jurassic Park”
14
Estimated weight (in tons) of Argentinosaurus, the largest known dinosaur
75
Years dinosaurs lived on Earth
165 million

The spiked tail of a stegosaurus is called a ______.

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The spiked tail of a stegosaurus is called a thagomizer.

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Dinosaurs aren’t considered extinct.

Not fully, anyway. While the vast majority of our prehistoric friends did indeed die out after an asteroid likely hit the planet about 65 million years ago, some persisted — and today we call them birds. There are 10,000 species of dinosaurs alive today, none of which is as fearsome as a Tyrannosaurus rex but all of whom are marvels of evolution. The ancestors of modern birds survived while other dinosaurs died out in part by shrinking their size and exploiting a different, less-competitive ecological niche than their bulkier, land-dwelling relatives. Between the dinosaurs of old and the birds of today was the Archaeopteryx, a “transitional fossil” with both avian and reptilian features that lived some 150 million years ago.

Michael Nordine
Staff Writer

Michael Nordine is a writer and editor living in Denver. A native Angeleno, he has two cats and wishes he had more.

Original photo by Kristyna Sindelkova/ iStock

One of the oddest things about corn is the even number of rows (i.e., the kernels running lengthwise from end to end) you’ll find on almost every single ear. This is due to corn’s innate genetic programming, which instructs each individual ridge of kernels to double during early development (assuming normal growth conditions). 

The ridges continue to double until the cob is full, as there’s virtually always room for each row to double at least once barring any rare and prohibitive growth abnormalities. This results in an even total number of rows, irrespective of how many rows there were to begin with. These rows typically form during the early weeks of the vegetative process, several months before the plant reaches maturity and is ready to be harvested.

Corn is botanically considered a fruit, a vegetable, and a grain.

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Corn falls into a variety of biological categories. The kernels humans eat are considered fruits, as they come from the ovary of a flowering plant, while the stalks and leaves consumed by livestock are starchy vegetables, and mature kernels harvested for popcorn or cornmeal are grains.

While the total number of rows will almost certainly be even, you may end up with eight, 14, or 20 depending on external growth conditions (e.g., water supply, nutrient deficiencies, crop disease, etc.). Those same factors affect the number of kernels in each row as well. According to FoodReference.com, a typical ear will have about 800 kernels and 16 rows.

Though an even number of rows is the overwhelming standard, it’s entirely possible for there to be an odd number in rare circumstances. Certain inbred varieties may develop genetic mutations that inhibit proper growth. Abnormal weather and insect infestations can also stymie corn’s natural biological development, resulting in an odd total number. However, those instances are uncommon and far from the norm.

Numbers Don't Lie

Numbers Don't Lie

Length (in inches) of the longest recorded corn cob
36.25
Year Orville Redenbacher launched his namesake popcorn brand
1969
Percentage of the global corn crop produced in the U.S.
31%
Acres of corn planted by U.S. farmers each year
90 million

______ produces the most corn of any U.S. state.

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Iowa produces the most corn of any U.S. state.

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“The World’s Only Corn Palace” is located in South Dakota.

The small city of Mitchell, South Dakota, has roughly 15,000 residents, but it attracts about 500,000 tourists each year to visit a unique attraction — the Corn Palace. Self-described as the “world’s only” palatial corn structure, this local landmark was first established in 1892 to honor the state’s proud agricultural industry. It became the site of a popular fall harvest festival and was later expanded to accommodate larger crowds.

The current structure dates to 1921 and is best known for its decorative exterior murals that are based on a new theme each year. Those murals are made not from paint, but from 12 colorful varieties of corn. Past themes include “Famous South Dakotans,” “Scenes of the Old West,” and “Salute to Rodeo.” Oddly, the interior of the Corn Palace contains a basketball court, which USA Today named among the top 10 places in the country for high school basketball.

Bennett Kleinman
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Bennett Kleinman is a New York City-based staff writer for Inbox Studio, and previously contributed to television programs such as "Late Show With David Letterman" and "Impractical Jokers." Bennett is also a devoted New York Yankees and New Jersey Devils fan, and thinks plain seltzer is the best drink ever invented.

Original photo by Khatawut Chaemchamras / EyeEm via Getty Images

Anyone who’s ever serenaded their sweetheart has more in common with bats than they might think. In 2009, researchers at the University of Texas at Austin and Texas A&M studied the vocalizations of Tadarida brasiliensis — the Brazilian free-tailed bat, more commonly known as the Mexican free-tailed bat — and found the tunes to be surprisingly nuanced love songs. Though difficult for humans to hear, the songs consist of unique syllables that combine to form three types of “phrases”: chirps, buzzes, and trills. The males combine these phrases in different ways to attract females — and to warn other males to stay away.

Bats are blind.

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Despite the expression, bats can see just fine. While it’s true that most species use echolocation to hunt in the dark and thus rely more on sound than sight, some fruit bats don’t echolocate at all and certain species can even see UV light.

What makes this especially remarkable is that, until recently, bats weren’t thought to communicate with one another in such a structured way. But when the researchers listened to recordings of two free-tailed colonies in Austin and College Station, Texas, they discovered that they “use the same ‘words’ in their love phrases,” according to lead researcher Kirsten Bohn. And we’re learning more about bat communication all the time — in August 2021, researchers found that baby bats “babble” much like human infants do, practicing syllables over and over until they learn to get it right.

Numbers Don't Lie

Numbers Don't Lie

Maximum speed (in miles per hour) of the Mexican free-tailed bat
100
Number of mosquitoes the average bat can eat in an hour
1,200
Age of the world’s oldest known bat
41
Number of bat species in the world
1,100

The highest-grossing Batman movie worldwide is ______.

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The highest-grossing Batman movie worldwide is “The Dark Knight Rises” (2012).

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The world’s largest bat colony is in Texas.

Next time you’re near San Antonio, make sure to visit Bracken Cave. The nature preserve run by Bat Conservation International (BCI) is home to more than 20 million Mexican free-tailed bats in the summer, making it the largest bat colony in the world. Though often portrayed as sinister in pop culture, these creatures of the night play a crucial role in their ecosystem by consuming more than 100 tons of corn earworm moths and other pests every summer night. The cave is a popular place to visit on warm summer evenings, when the bats take flight in a stunning display with the potential to convert any chiroptophobes in attendance.

Michael Nordine
Staff Writer

Michael Nordine is a writer and editor living in Denver. A native Angeleno, he has two cats and wishes he had more.

Original photo by Science History Images/ Alamy Stock Photo

Long before trees, Earth was home to towering organisms called Prototaxites, which lived during the Late Silurian through the Devonian periods, roughly 420 million to 350 million years ago. Fossil evidence shows they could reach up to 24 feet tall and 3 feet wide, making them the largest land organisms of their time. 

Most plants back then measured only a few inches, forming low mats of mosses, liverworts, and early vascular species. Land animals — millipede-like arthropods, primitive insects, and early amphibians — were also relatively small, and the first treelike plants would not appear until millions of years later, making Prototaxites the giants of their prehistoric world.

Mushrooms can survive in space.

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Certain fungi have shown remarkable resilience in extreme conditions. Scientists are exploring fungi as tools for future space missions, with potential uses including breaking down waste, contributing to biomanufacturing, and even serving as natural shields against radiation.

For more than a century, scientists debated whether Prototaxites were plants, fungi, algae, or lichens, since nothing comparable exists today. Their fossil “trunks” were composed of tightly packed microscopic tubes, unlike vascular tissues in plants, and they lacked roots, leaves, or wood. Isotope studies suggest they lived as heterotrophs, absorbing nutrients from decaying organic matter rather than producing their own food.

They may also have played a role in shaping primitive soils and nutrient cycles, and some researchers speculate their massive columns offered shelter to small arthropods. Although scientists are still investigating how Prototaxites lived and precisely what role they played in early ecosystems, evidence now points to them being either fungi or an otherwise unknown fungus-like branch of life.

Numbers Don't Lie

Numbers Don't Lie

Number of edible mushroom types that can be commercially mass grown
10
Known species of mushrooms worldwide
16,000
Year the first Prototaxite fossils were discovered
1843
Height (in feet) of the tallest living tree, a California coast redwood named Hyperion
380

In the 1959 adventure film “______,” explorers find a subterranean world filled with towering prehistoric mushrooms.

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In the 1959 adventure film “Journey to the Center of the Earth,” explorers find a subterranean world filled with towering prehistoric mushrooms.

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Some mushrooms can glow in the dark.

Bioluminescent fungi, such as Panellus stipticus and Mycena chlorophos, emit a soft green light through chemical reactions involving enzymes and oxygen. This glow serves multiple ecological purposes: It may deter predators, attract insects to help spread spores, or even protect the fungi from harmful oxidative stress. In dense forests at night, patches of these glowing mushrooms can make the forest floor shimmer as if dotted with tiny lanterns.

Interestingly, more than 130 fungi species are known to exhibit bioluminescence, making it more common among fungi than among animals. In Japanese folklore and among Indigenous cultures in Central and South America, bioluminescent mushrooms were often thought to be the spirits of the dead. Today, their glow reminds us even seemingly ordinary organisms hold hidden wonders, quietly illuminating the ecosystems we may otherwise overlook.

Kristina Wright
Writer

Kristina is a coffee-fueled writer living happily ever after with her family in the suburbs of Richmond, Virginia.