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Pushed into marriage as a teenager to cement political ties, the late-18th-century French queen Marie Antoinette had a tumultuous reign, to say the least. But although there was no stopping the momentum that led to her end at the guillotine, the records of her life and deeds allow us to look at her complicated legacy with kinder eyes. Here are nine facts, along with a few dispelled myths, about the life of this glamorous but misunderstood monarch.

The Future French Queen Had To Cram for Her Wedding

Born in 1755 to Holy Roman Emperor Francis I and Empress Maria Theresa, the archduchess was the 15th of 16 children and enjoyed a carefree childhood due to the lax oversight of her governess. However, her leisurely lifestyle came to an end with the arrangement (at age 13) of her marriage to the Dauphin of France, and with it the discovery that she was barely literate. The French court promptly provided tutor Abbé de Vermond, who sent back reports of his pupil’s short attention span and painfully slow handwriting. Ultimately, the cram sessions helped Marie Antoinette gain a command of French language and history, while the efforts of a Parisian ballet teacher ensured that the up-to-speed archduchess could properly comport herself with the grace of a queen.

Marie Antoinette Was a Fashion Icon

Of all the outrageous accusations attached to Marie Antoinette, the one with the most truth concerns her exorbitant spending on gowns and accessories. She often blew past her annual clothing budget of 120,000 livres — nearly $4 million in 2024 dollars — and reportedly purchased up to 300 new dresses per year. But it was her devotion to appearances, guided by the deft hand of her “Minister of Fashion” Rose Bertin, that made the queen a trendsetter in her time. Along with donning ornate outfits like her diamond-encrusted wedding dress, Marie Antoinette pushed the envelope by carrying a towering pouf hairdo. Even when she stoked outrage by dressing down in a chemise-style muslin gown for an official portrait, this particular mode of dress quickly picked up in popularity across the rest of Europe.

It’s Unlikely She Ever Said “Let Them Eat Cake”

While we don’t know everything the queen uttered in her private chambers, historians are skeptical she delivered the infamous comment that supposedly signified her indifference to the suffering of her subjects. After all, for all the profligate spending of her early reign, she was also known for giving generously to charities and for the compassion she displayed to people injured in her presence. Furthermore, versions of “Let them eat cake” had previously been attributed to other European royals, including the 17th-century French queen consort Marie-Thérèse. One of the first printed references to the snide remark appeared in philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s Confessions, which was published when Marie Antoinette was still a relatively unknown archduchess of Austria.

Marie Antoinette Was a Talented Musician

While a young Marie Antoinette found it hard to focus on traditional academic subjects, it was a different story when it came to her musical tutelage. Receiving lessons in instruments including the harp, harpsichord, and the glass armonica, she eventually developed the ability to sight-read musical notation at a professional level. As queen, Marie Antoinette enjoyed singing while playing her beloved harp, and was known to accompany performers such as Chevalier de Saint-Georges on the forte-piano. Not content with merely dusting off her talents every now and then, she also revived a royal musical program and heartily supported her favored conductors, ensuring that those in her orbit were also heavily exposed to her musical passions.

She Gave Birth to Her First Child in Front of a Huge Crowd

While it was common at the time for French queens to give birth before an audience of royals, the eight-year wait between the Louis XVI-Marie Antoinette union and the announcement of her first pregnancy had whipped their subjects into a frenzy of expectation. The result was a crush of onlookers descending on the Palace of Versailles when she finally went into labor in December 1778, with several uninvited guests breaking into her room and scaling the furniture to get a better view. All told, a reported 200 visitors witnessed the delivery of princess Marie-Therese, and the overflowing excitement of the crowd combined with the stress of the delivery caused the new mother to pass out.

The Queen Cherished the Privacy of a Neighboring Palace

A Greek-style structure built near the Palace of Versailles for one of Louis XV’s mistresses, the Petit Trianon was gifted to Marie Antoinette following her ascension to the throne. It became a safe haven for the queen to enjoy her private time away from the prying eyes of the royal court, and to that end she had window paneling, lighting, and decorations redone to her tastes. On the grounds, she oversaw the installation of a theater and the “Hameau de la Reine,” a picturesque village with a windmill and a working farm. While it’s oft been repeated that Marie Antoinette and her friends galavanted around the farm dressed as peasants, this seems to be another unfortunate rumor designed to tarnish her reputation.

She Was Scandalized by the “Affair of the Diamond Necklace”

In the mid-1780s, the conniving Countess de La Motte approached the Cardinal de Rohan with a request to buy an expensive diamond necklace on behalf of the queen. Having run afoul of her highness’s good graces, the cardinal eagerly agreed to the task and arranged a payment plan with the jewelers. However, Marie Antoinette was unaware of any of this, and the hoax came to light when the jewelers sought the rest of the money owed by their surprised royal client. The countess was arrested, flogged, and imprisoned, but the “Affair of the Diamond Necklace” also tainted the queen as yet another example of the obscene wealth that passed through her grasp while commoners were starving.

Marie Antoinette Likely Was Involved in an Affair With a Swedish Count

The subject of all sorts of salacious gossip and vulgar depictions, Marie Antoinette supposedly slept with court officers and even family members to satisfy her wild sexual cravings. The allegations were largely false, of course, yet evidence suggests she had an extramarital relationship with Swedish count Axel Fersen. A Swedish ambassador once observed that the queen could barely conceal her feelings for Fersen in public, and the count was known to stay at the Petit Trianon — without the king around — when visiting the country. While Fersen destroyed much of their correspondence and redacted the content of surviving letters, the recent application of X-ray technology on the hidden sections revealed some intimate language between the two.

The Imprisoned Queen Nearly Escaped Execution By Way of the “Carnation Plot”

While imprisoned at the Conciergerie in Paris in August 1793, Marie Antoinette was visited by the royalist Chevalier of Rougeville. Although accounts of the story vary, Rougeville was said to have dropped a carnation concealing a brief note about a plan to squire her to safety. A few days later, he arrived to escort the queen off the premises; however, although the guards had been bribed, one of them reneged on the deal and refused to cooperate. The so-called “Carnation Plot” led to a string of arrests and heightened security, and hastened the arrival of the show trial that condemned the queen to execution a few weeks later.

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The wife of the 16th and perhaps most consequential President in U.S. history, Mary Todd Lincoln left behind an intriguing legacy in her own right. Often remembered as a troubled foil to her saintly husband, she was of course a far more complex person than the shrewish caricature she was often reduced to, especially when considering the enormous losses she suffered in her lifetime. Read on to learn seven facts about this outspoken and misunderstood First Lady.

Mary Todd Was Well Educated for a Woman of Her Time

Mary was one of 16 children born to Kentucky businessman and politician Robert Smith Todd, who possessed the financial means and progressive mindset to make sure his daughters were academically engaged. She subsequently studied a wide range of subjects over five years at Shelby Female Academy, before spending another four years perfecting her French at the Mentelle’s for Young Ladies boarding academy. Her schooling, combined with exposure to influential family friends such as Senator Henry Clay, ensured that Mary was well versed in both classical subjects and contemporary issues.

Stephen Douglas Asked for Mary’s Hand in Marriage

While Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas famously sparred in a series of debates for a U.S. Senate seat in 1858, they also competed for the affections of the same fiery Kentucky woman some 20 years earlier. After moving to Springfield, Illinois, in the late 1830s, Mary drew the attention of promising suitors like Douglas, then a rising lawyer and politician. However, the ambition and charisma of the “Little Giant” wasn’t enough to win her over; when Douglas asked for her hand in marriage, she reportedly replied, “I can’t consent to be your wife. I shall become Mrs. President, or I am the victim of false prophets, but it will not be as Mrs. Douglas.”

Mary Formed a Strong Political Partnership With Her Husband …

Historians have often mused over what drew Mr. and Mrs. Lincoln to matrimony in November 1842 — she was short, tempestuous, and sophisticated; he was towering, shy, and dirt-poor — but their seemingly contradicting attributes masked a strong partnership. Politically, they saw eye-to-eye with their roots in the Whig Party, and he valued her intelligence and judgment of character. Furthermore, Mary’s refinement proved an asset on the 1860 presidential campaign trail, helping to convince journalists that the little-known Republican was a serious candidate. Her invaluable contributions to the campaign prompted Lincoln, upon learning of his victory, to exclaim to his wife: “Mary, Mary, we are elected!”

… But She Was an Unpopular First Lady

Any public benefits Mary provided for Lincoln during his candidacy quickly evaporated by the time she settled into her role as First Lady. She was criticized for burning through the allocated congressional funding for White House renovation during one extended shopping trip, and again for hosting parties during a solemn time of war. Mary also butted heads with White House staffers — Lincoln’s secretary John Hay called her a “hellcat” — and did herself no favors with the occasional public tantrum. Although she also visited wounded soldiers and contributed to a fund for runaway enslaved people, such deeds were usually eclipsed by the waves of negative publicity.

Mary Todd Lincoln Was Close Friends With a Formerly Enslaved Woman Turned Dressmaker

Born into slavery in Virginia, Elizabeth Keckley (also spelled Keckly) used her sewing talents to become a dressmaker to some of the most powerful women in the nation’s capital, including the incoming First Lady in 1861. Their relationship quickly progressed from professional to personal, with one observer describing the seamstress as “the only person in Washington who could get along with Mrs. Lincoln.” The widow pleaded with Keckley to move with her to Chicago after leaving the White House, and she later enlisted her confidant’s help in an ill-fated attempt to sell off personal possessions. However, their relationship came to an end after Keckley revealed too many private details in her 1868 memoir, Behind the Scenes: Or, Thirty Years a Slave, and Four Years in the White House.

Mary Todd Lincoln Was Committed to a Mental Institution by Her Surviving Son

As a mother who’d lost three sons to various diseases — and her husband to an assassin — Mary was understandably troubled after she had a premonition of misfortune befalling her lone surviving son, Robert, fueling a confrontation between the two in 1875. Agitated by years of Mary’s increasingly erratic behavior, Robert took her to court for insanity proceedings, and personally testified to her “unsound mind” to get her committed to Bellevue Place Sanitarium in Batavia, Illinois. Whatever distress she was enduring at the time, Mary was shrewd enough to behave under close watch while smuggling letters to influential allies, who managed to secure her release to her eldest sister’s care after a few months.

Mary Todd Lincoln May Have Suffered From a Vitamin B12 Deficiency

Mary’s list of physical and mental issues has long been a source of fascination for armchair psychologists and real-life physicians. Some have posthumously diagnosed her with illnesses ranging from Lyme disease to diabetes, but in 2016, one doctor put forth an intriguing theory that she may have suffered from a condition called pernicious anemia. Often brought about by the body’s inability to absorb vitamin B12, pernicious anemia can lead to such symptoms as headaches, fever, swelling, mouth soreness, and shortness of breath — all of which were experienced by the First Lady. Had she enjoyed access to the B12 shots that became available after WWII, she may have had a somewhat easier time in her later years and been remembered differently by history.

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Idioms are short phrases that often make no literal sense but are nonetheless usually understood by the native speakers of a language. They can be quirky, playful, and sometimes even strange, but the most charming thing about them is their specificity of culture — like an inside joke shared by millions. Someone still learning English might be baffled to hear that they’d been “let off the hook,” though almost anyone raised in an English-speaking community would understand the meaning.

Over time, the original context of the phrase is usually lost, but the words find new meaning in their idiomatic form. Take, for instance, being let off the hook. Dating back to the 18th century, the phrase evokes the image of a worm on the end of a fishing line. If it can wiggle itself off the hook, it can avoid being eaten by a fish. Likewise, a child caught stealing a cookie might beg and plead themselves out of being reprimanded, thereby getting themselves off the hook. Here are the little-known origin stories behind eight other common English idioms.

“Wear Your Heart on Your Sleeve”

To wear your heart on your sleeve is to be honest and open about your feelings. The phrase is generally believed to have originated in the Middle Ages. It was the custom then for jousting knights to wear some sort of insignia on their arm that indicated the ladies for whom they were hoping to triumph, thus proclaiming their love to the world.    

“Pardon My French”

In England, in the early 1800s, people would “beg pardon” for using French words in conversation. Forgiveness was requested in these instances because most people did not speak French, and furthermore, the Napoleonic Wars had left a residue of animosity between the two countries. By the mid-1800s the phrase had evolved to refer to swear words specifically. It’s worth noting that the Cambridge dictionary defines the idiom as something to be said when pretending to be sorry for offensive language.

“The Best Thing Since Sliced Bread”

In 1928, when inventor Otto Frederick Rohwedder of Davenport, Iowa, first released his bread loaf-slicing invention, the advertisement claimed it was “the greatest forward step in the baking industry since bread was wrapped.” Riffing on the theme, customers began to compare all later inventions to his, and the modern idiom evolved from there.  

“With Flying Colors”

This idiom dates back to the Age of Exploration, the period when European explorers first set off across the seas. If a captain had been successful in his venture, he would order the crew to fly their country’s flag (or “colors”) to announce their victory before arriving back at the home port. Originally, the phrase “with flying colors” simply meant that a mission had been completed without disaster, but over the centuries the idiom came to signify great success.

“Apple of My Eye”

To be the apple of someone’s eye is to be their most adored companion, but what exactly is an eye apple? This idiom is one of the oldest in the English language, traced back to the ninth century. Back then, it was assumed that the pupil of the eye was a round, solid object, and it was often compared to an apple, as apples were a commonly known round object. The delicate nature of sight (and its tendency to fade with age) made vision precious and over the years the phrase “apple of my eye” came to be used in reference to anything or anyone a person held dear.  

“Head Over Heels”

If one stops to think about it, being “head over heels” is actually how most humans spend their days. So how did this common, everyday state of being come to signify romance? In the 1300s, the phrase “head over heels” was used more literally to describe someone tumbling through a handstand or cartwheel, but by the 1800s writers had begun to use the phrase idiomatically to describe someone who had fallen hopelessly in love.  

“Buttering Up”

To butter someone up is to beguile them, or to lavish them with praise to get what you want. The idiom evolved from the very literal buttering that takes place as part of the Hindu tradition of throwing balls of clarified butter (called ghee) at the statues of deities. In exchange for the offering, it was thought that buttered-up gods would reward the faithful with a good harvest.  

“Cutting the Mustard”

There is much speculation regarding the origin of this idiom, but the most reputable sources trace its usage from the late 1600s when the phrase “keen as mustard” was used to describe someone of high standards. Combined with “cutting,” which is often used in place of “exhibiting” (think: cutting a fine figure), and you get the modern, idiomatic equivalent of “exhibiting high standards.”

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Ideally, history is the true story of humanity’s past. But sometimes fictions slip in, either big or small, and stay fixed in the narrative with a stubborn persistence. Some of these fictions are relatively harmless, while others have become the engine of major movements or seriously distorted people’s lives. These are the stories of six of the most prominent myths in history, and why it’s time to debunk them once and for all.

Napoleon Wasn’t That Short

You’ve probably heard the phrase “Napoleon complex,” which refers to the idea that small creatures — whether people or Pomeranians — often act as if they’re much bigger than they really are, supposedly in an attempt to overcompensate for their lack of stature. Of course, it’s also a reference to Napoleon Bonaparte, the early 19th-century French emperor who wreaked havoc on the European continent for nearly two decades. Yet French sources say Napoleon probably stood at about 5 feet, 5 inches. While that might seem somewhat short by today’s standards, it was only an inch shorter than the average height of a Frenchman at the time. It’s possible he even stood an inch or two taller than this estimate.

So why does history remember Napoleon as such a tiny tyrant? Turns out, it’s actually an enduring piece of British propaganda. In 1803, British political cartoonist James Gillray — arguably the most influential caricaturist of his time — introduced the character “Little Boney,” which portrayed Bonaparte as both diminutive and juvenile. In his cartoons, Napoleon was often seen throwing tantrums while stomping around in oversized boots, military garb, and bicorne hats. The image stuck, and the sight of a raging, pint-sized Napoleon echoed through history. Before his death in 1821, the twice-exiled Napoleon even admitted that Gillray “did more than all the armies of Europe to bring me down.”

People Have Known the World Was Round for 2,500 Years

“In 1492, Columbus sailed the ocean blue” in an effort to prove to European naysayers that the world was round, right? Not at all. In fact, Italian explorer Cristoforo Colombo (his real name), his European contemporaries, and basically all educated humans dating back to the ancient Greeks knew the Earth was a sphere. Famous mathematician Pythagoras of Samos (of a2 + b2 = c2 fame) figured out as much around 500 BCE, and 260 years later, another Greek mathematician named Eratosthenes accurately measured the Earth’s circumference. But defying the status quo and risking a deathly plunge into the vacuum of space certainly adds some dramatic tension, which is probably why Washington Irving invented this fictional flourish for his 1828 biography The Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus. Although he was known for his inventive works of fiction, such as Rip Van Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow, Irving’s creative history of Colombo became one of the most persistent myths of the Age of Exploration.

Marie Antoinette Never Said “Let Them Eat Cake”

During the French Revolution in the late 18th century, royals and nobles didn’t fare very well — perhaps least of all Queen Marie Antoinette. Married to the last ruler of the ancien régime, King Louis XVI, at the age of 14, Antoinette was seen as an Austrian outsider (her dad was Holy Roman Emperor Francis I) and was often the recipient of France’s ill will. Although the aristocracy was certainly divorced from the harsh realities of the French peasantry, Antoinette was both intelligent and giving, often donating to charitable causes. This didn’t save her from being frequently implicated in various scandals (including a famous one involving a pricey diamond necklace), despite being generally innocent of the charges.

But the most damaging accusation when it comes to Antoinette’s historical reputation is her alleged cold reaction to the plight of the starving French peasantry when she supposedly uttered the phrase “Let them eat cake.” Yet Antoinette didn’t do it. For one thing, the actual French quote — “qu’ils mangent de la brioche” — doesn’t mention cake at all, but instead brioche, a type of sweet bread. Semantics aside, folklore scholars for nearly two centuries have traced the famous phrase to other sources and regions from long before Antoinette was even born. A 16th-century German tale, for example, features a noble woman wondering why peasants didn’t instead eat krosem, also a kind of sweet bread. In 1843, French writer Jean-Baptiste Alphonse Karr found the same sentence in a book dated 1760 (when the Austrian princess would have been only 5 years old). Even the 2006 film Marie Antoinette (starring Kirsten Dunst in the eponymous role) mentions that the French queen never said the words. Yet despite nearly two centuries of debunking, the myth remains.

The “Wild West” Wasn’t That Wild

The famous gunfight at the O.K. Corral in 1881, pitting the lawmen Virgil and Wyatt Earp against outlaws known as the “Cowboys,” is often seen as an emblem of the Wild West. Although depicted in many Hollywood films as evidence of the rampant lawlessness of the West, the real gunfight lasted only 30 seconds, killed three people, and didn’t happen at the O.K. Corral but in a vacant lot down the street. Overall, the episode was a relatively minor one in the history of western North America, but it’s a moment that has become almost legendary in the romanticization of the Wild West, a period of American history stretching from about 1850 until 1900.

Although areas where people struck gold saw a relatively significant uptick in crime, most of the supposedly “wild” West was tamer than you may imagine. Economists, historians, and authors argue that for the most part settlers understood the importance of solving matters civilly, and some towns even passed gun control measures. Although Native Americans suffered egregious injustices during this period, the idea that they massacred white settlers in large numbers has also been exaggerated, and many were actually tolerant of wagon trains headed west.

Another of the most famous tropes associated with the Wild West is also a fabrication, or at least an exaggeration. Many cowboys preferred bowler hats or other lower-crowned hats; what we think of as a cowboy hat didn’t become popular until around the end of the 19th century. (The name “10-gallon hat” didn’t arrive until the 1920s.) Even the ubiquitous saloon-style doors were mostly a myth, as nearly all watering holes in the West had normal doors to keep out chilly winds.

There Were Actually 12 U.S. Colonies (Until 1776)

Thirteen stripes on the U.S. flag mean 13 colonies originally rebelled against British rule in 1775, right? Strangely, this too is also a myth of sorts. While it’s true that the former British colonies did begin the American Revolution in earnest in 1775 with the Battles of Lexington and Concord, there were technically only 12 colonies at the time. Although it had its own legislative assembly since 1704, the little stretch of coast known today as Delaware was then a part of the Pennsylvania Colony. Delaware didn’t declare its independence until June 15, 1776 — just in time to send delegates to the Second Continental Congress to vote on the Declaration of Independence less than a month later. Although Delaware was the last colony to fully form in America’s colonial period, it certainly wasted no time ushering in the new era, as the state was the very first to ratify the U.S. Constitution on December 7, 1787, technically making it the first U.S. state in the union.

Thomas Edison Didn’t Invent the Lightbulb

Thomas Edison has plenty of world-changing inventions to his name, such as the phonograph and the kinetograph, but history largely remembers his genius in the shape of the lightbulb. Edison can certainly be thanked for perfecting the lightbulb and making electric light economically feasible, but he’s far from the technology’s inventor. Although many could claim credit for the lightbulb’s invention, one of the earliest examples of a lightbulb comes from an English scientist named Ebenezer Kinnersley, who in 1761 — some 86 years before Edison was born — described getting a wire so “red hot” that it gave off light. Kinnersley was describing a process known as incandescence, where electrical resistance actually causes a material to glow. This idea forms the scientific foundation of the incandescent bulb, and many inventors before Edison, including Frederick de Moleyns and Joseph Swan, successfully created incandescent bulbs and lamps. However, in the end it was Edison who by 1880 devised a bulb that lasted some 1,200 hours thanks to its carbonized bamboo filament. Suddenly, lightbulbs transformed from an expensive oddity to the way of the future.

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Whether in mathematics, anatomy, engineering, botany, cartography, or architecture, the 15th-century Florentine polymath Leonardo da Vinci had no equal. Oh, and he also found time to be one of the greatest artists who ever lived. Because his genius stretched into so many disciplines — and thousands of pages of his notes and sketches have survived the centuries — Leonardo remains one of history’s most well-known, yet still enigmatic, figures. Scientists and physicians still wonder how his brilliant mind worked, while engineers and designers marvel at (and in some cases construct) his many contraptions and inventions. These six facts explore the incredible life of the original Renaissance man.

“Da Vinci” Isn’t Leonardo’s Last Name

“Leonardo da Vinci” (pronounced starting with a “LAY”) is one of the most famous names in history — but it isn’t really the polymath’s name. Born in 1452 in Vinci, near the Italian city of Florence, Leonardo was the illegitimate son of wealthy notary Ser Piero da Vinci and a peasant woman named Catalina. Ser Piero acknowledged Leonardo as his son, and the nascent genius became known as Leonardo di ser Piero, meaning “son of Piero” (surnames were a relatively new phenomenon in Italy at the time and mostly reserved for the upper class). Because he had been born out of wedlock, Leonardo was — thankfully for us — given freedom to explore his intellectual pursuits, rather than be trained as a notary like his father, as was family custom at the time.

When Leonardo became an apprentice in his teenage years, he tacked on the moniker “da Vinci,” or “from Vinci,” to distinguish himself from the plethora of Leonardos in Florence and throughout Tuscany. That’s why, when referring to the famous figure, it’s more accurate to call him simply “Leonardo” rather than “da Vinci.” Who wants to tell Dan Brown the bad news?

Leonardo Designed the First Helicopter (and the First Tank)

Leonardo’s artistic legacy adorns the walls of museums (and one convent) around the world, and his works are visited by millions every year, but the famous Florentine’s scientific genius is also found in some 7,000 surviving pages of notes — each one detailing his thoughts on far-reaching ideas and concepts. One idea, known as the aerial screw, is considered to be the very first design of a vertical take-off and landing aircraft, also known as a helicopter. Another famous invention, Leonardo’s fighting vehicle, is essentially a 15th-century armored tank; it’d be nearly a half millennia before anything like these metal machines marched across European battlefields.

Leonardo’s surviving notebooks also contain various flying machines called ornithopters, history’s first conception of a parachute, and advanced ideas in zoology, mathematics, hydrology, anatomy, and geology. For example, almost four centuries before Charles Darwin, Leonardo theorized through the study of rocks and fossils that the Earth must be much older than the Bible had described. Without these notebooks, Leonardo might be remembered as a very good, even great (but not terribly prolific) Renaissance painter, but these yellowing pages reveal an astonishing mind working out mysteries that wouldn’t be solved for centuries.

He Created a Satellite Map… in 1502

Leonardo was a man ahead of his time, and nowhere is that more clear than in his “satellite” map of the Italian city of Imola. In August 1502, at the age of 50, Leonardo became general architect and engineer to Cesare Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander VI and a very wealthy individual. One of Leonardo’s chief missions was to survey Imola, a city near Bologna, in an effort to improve its fortifications. Unlike other maps of the time that were drawn from angled perspectives, filled with mythological or religious references, and/or more concerned with a town’s architectural beauty than cartographic accuracy, Leonardo’s map of Imola looks more at home on Google Maps than in a 16th-century atlas.

That’s because Leonardo created an ichnographic map, an idea first explored by the Roman architect Vitruvius (yes, that Vitruvius) in the first century BCE. It’s what we’d call a satellite map today, because the perspective of the map hovers directly above the city. Of course, Leonardo da Vinci didn’t have a satellite, so instead he likely paced the town by foot (perhaps using proto-odometer), using other tools such as a bussola (a tool that measures degrees inside a circle) to measure the degree of angles at every turn, and took bearings from the tower of the Palazzo Comunale. The result is an astonishingly accurate map, one that a 21st-century tourist could still use to navigate parts of Imola today.

He Was a Notorious Procrastinator

Leonardo da Vinci is the original “Renaissance man,” but his interest in, well, nearly everything also came with one big downside — he was a bit of a procrastinator. Compared to his artistic contemporaries, Leonardo didn’t produce nearly as many paintings, with only 20 or so — many of them still uncompleted — still around today. Instead, Leonardo was often distracted, and frequently caught doodling in his now-famous notebooks. Although Leonardo’s life is filled with remarkable accomplishments, it’s also littered with half-realized projects and unfinished masterpieces. One famous example is “The Virgin of the Rocks,” a painting that originally had a seven-month deadline, but took Leonardo 25 years to complete. Other works, such as the Sforza Horse — intended to be one of the world’s largest cast bronze statues — never saw the light of day despite years of work and planning.

His chronic perfectionism didn’t help, and Leonardo himself even lamented his lifelong inattention. According to his biographer and art historian Giorgio Vasari, Leonardo allegedly mentioned around the time of his death in 1519 “that he had offended God and mankind in not having worked at his art as he should have done.” Today, modern diagnoses of Leonardo’s behavior suggest he might have lived with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder, or ADHD. Modern biographer Walter Isaacson argues that such a diagnosis could partly explain the creative engine behind Leonardo’s eclectic genius.

The “Mona Lisa” Remains Unfinished

The most well-known painting in the world is Leonardo da Vinci’s “Mona Lisa.” Around 10 million people glimpse the beguiling smile of Madam Lisa del Giocondo every year, but few of them likely know that the painting is actually unfinished. Although Leonardo began working on the painting in 1503, evidence suggests he was still refining the portrait around the year 1516. However, an illness in 1517 (possibly a stroke) caused semi-paralysis on the right side of his body, including his hand. Although he wrote with his left hand, Leonardo painted with his right, and this affliction likely caused the “Mona Lisa” to be left unfinished — at least in the artist’s eyes.

Keen-eyed art enthusiasts might point to the subject’s lack of eyebrows as evidence of the masterwork’s incomplete status, but some experts now believe the painting originally featured eyebrows and eyelashes that have been lost over time due to poor restoration.

Leonardo da Vinci Had an Intense Rivalry With Michelangelo

When it comes to Renaissance art, no two names are bigger than Leonardo and Michelangelo. Although considered two different generations of artists, Leonardo being Michelangelo’s senior by about 23 years, the duo had an intense rivalry reflected in both their art styles and general philosophy. Michelangelo’s hard lines, as seen in the Sistine Chapel, speak to his sculptural mindset, whereas Leonardo’s softer lines (also known as sfumato) and symmetrical composition attempted to capture nature in its mathematical beauty. However, their feud was also personal: One famous story recounts how Michelangelo gave Leonardo a dressing down in public by shaming him for the incomplete Sforza Horse. Returning the favor, Leonardo was the only artist to object to the full-frontal nudity of Michelangelo’s David. Considering Leonardo had an entire section in his notebook dedicated to the male member, it’s unlikely he was actually offended, but his argument won out, and David’s privates were covered with a garland of leaves serving as a loincloth.

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It’s strange to imagine a scientist achieving the widespread recognition and adulation enjoyed by movie stars and elite athletes, but Albert Einstein’s life was seemingly propelled by such contradictions. He was an undistinguished student (according to some accounts) who blew the doors off centuries of established Newtonian physics; a pacifist who encouraged the creation of the atomic bomb; and an inherently soft-spoken individual who became a reliable dispenser of timeless wisdom. Here are six quick-hitting facts about this legendary 20th-century luminary.

Einstein’s Speech Was Slow to Develop in Childhood

Although he would eventually discover ways to communicate the far-reaching concepts percolating in his imagination, a young Einstein was slow to learn to talk properly. According to Walter Isaacson’s Einstein: His Life and Universe, the future physicist didn’t begin speaking until after turning 2 years old, and for several years after that would whisper words quietly to himself before saying them out loud. This behavior sparked concerns that he had an intellectual disability, with the family maid nicknaming him “der Depperte” — “the dopey one.” Nowadays, a child who is slow to pick up language but otherwise exhibits sound analytical thinking is sometimes said to have Einstein’s syndrome.

Einstein Rose to Fame After a 1919 Eclipse Confirmed His Theory of General Relativity

Still largely unknown even after publishing a string of revolutionary papers in his “annus mirabilis” of 1905, Einstein was primed for another breakthrough after uncovering the equations to support his theory of general relativity in 1915. However, as Germany was entrenched in warfare with much of the rest of Europe, it took a standup act of international goodwill for English astronomers Arthur Eddington and Frank Watson Dyson to test out the German physicist’s work. Their expeditions to examine the solar eclipse of May 29, 1919, confirmed Einstein’s prediction that gravity would cause light to “bend” around the sun, and the public revelation of those findings a few months later marked the beginning of Einstein’s ascension to the status of world-renowned genius.

Einstein Was an Enthusiastic Amateur Musician

When not immersed in mathematical minutiae, Einstein was known to unwind by playing the violin or piano. He reportedly traveled almost everywhere with his violin — although he owned several throughout his life, he nicknamed all of them “Lina” — and hosted regular Wednesday night chamber sessions during his years living in Princeton, New Jersey. So just how good was this master of the universe at his musical endeavors? He apparently struggled to stay in sync, but otherwise drew solid praise from acquaintances, who described his violin talents with comments ranging from “accurate but not sensuous” to “a good technique and an opulent tone.”

The Famous “Tongue Photo” Was Shot on His 72nd Birthday

Known for an irreverent personality to match his astonishing brainpower, Einstein showcased his cheeky nature following an evening spent celebrating his 72nd birthday at Princeton University on March 14, 1951. Reportedly tired of dealing with the press that swarmed the event, the professor climbed into a car with two colleagues, stuck out his tongue in response to a request for one more photo, and zoomed off into the night. UPI photographer Arthur Sasse timed the shot perfectly, and whatever irritation Einstein felt at the moment the photo was taken, he liked the outcome enough to order nine prints to use for personal greeting cards.

Einstein Declined an Offer to Become President of Israel

After publicly supporting the Zionist movement (even though his relationship with Zionism was complex), Einstein had the opportunity to become Israel’s second president following the death of Chaim Weizmann in 1952. The pitch came late that year in a letter from Israeli ambassador Abba Eban, who promised the academic icon “freedom to pursue your great scientific work” but also stipulated that the move to Israel would be required. Einstein wrote back that he was “saddened and ashamed” he could not accept, citing his advancing age and an inability to “deal properly with people” as reasons for declining the honor.

The FBI Kept a Thick File on the Outspoken Physicist

Although he escaped Nazi persecution by fleeing to the United States in 1932, Einstein soon drew attention from government watchdogs of his adopted home country. FBI concern was initially moderate over his anti-war views and friendships with far-left figures such as actor, singer, and activist Paul Robeson, but bureau chief J. Edgar Hoover upped the ante after Einstein criticized the development of the hydrogen bomb during a TV appearance in 1950. The FBI tried — and failed — to obtain permission to wiretap Einstein’s phone and have him deported, but nevertheless monitored his correspondence and investigated his personal and professional relationships. By the time of his death in 1955, Einstein’s FBI file had swollen to a whopping 1,427 pages.

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If you grew up in the United States, chances are you learned the names of all 50 states at a pretty young age. But while it may be hard to imagine now, the U.S. map could have looked very different. Here are eight states that almost had entirely different names — and the fascinating stories behind them.

Nevada

Anyone who has traveled around the West has probably come across the name Humboldt. It appears in county names, street signs, rivers, and mountain ranges — and if history had gone a little differently, the state of Nevada would bear this name, too.

The Humboldt name found its way across the region because of the exploits of an explorer and naturalist named Alexander von Humboldt. Born in 1769, Humboldt helped popularize scientific exploration with his book Kosmos. He had a fascination with geology, and he ended up traveling approximately 6,000 miles across Central and South America, exploring the oceans and landscapes. On his travels, Humboldt became the first person to figure out that altitude sickness was caused by lack of oxygen.

However, Humboldt never actually set foot in the western U.S. It was fellow explorer John C. Fremont who chose to name many locations after him in honor of his scientific contributions. When Nevada became a state in 1864, Humboldt was seriously considered as a name — but ultimately, the government chose Nevada, the Spanish word for “snow-covered” instead.

Utah

The origins of Utah are closely tied to the history of the Mormons, who initially wanted to name this state Deseret after a name in the Book of Mormon. While the Mormon church began in New York, its members struggled to acclimate. This forced church members to hit the road as they searched for a place to settle.

Leader Brigham Young decided to move the Mormons west to the Salt Lake basin. As they began to settle, Young petitioned Congress to create a new state for them. The initial suggested boundaries of Utah were enormous, spreading across what is now Nevada and stretching all the way to the coastline of Southern California.

Young’s petition was initially declined, at least in part due to the prevailing anti-Mormon bias in American society at the time. However, after the Mormons publicly abandoned polygamy several decades later, they were finally granted statehood in 1896. The resulting state was much smaller than they had hoped, and they didn’t get to name it Deseret. Instead, the government chose the name Utah, after the Ute tribe that lived there.

Maine

New Somerset, Yorkshire, Columbus, and Lygonia were all potential names for Maine, but, of course, none of them stuck. In fact, King Charles reportedly hated the name New Somerset so much that he responded adamantly that the region should be known as “the County of Mayne and not by any other name or names whatsoever.”

The name Mayne first appeared in writing as early as 1622, but to this day, no one is quite sure how it morphed into Maine instead — and where the name ultimately came from. The most prevalent belief is that the region was named after the nautical term “main land” to distinguish it from the many islands located in the sea around the coast of Maine. An alternate theory is that it was named after an English village or a French province of the same name. However it came to be, King Charles can rest easy knowing that the name New Somerset never stuck (though Somerset is the name of a county in Maine).

Kentucky

We’re all familiar with Kentucky bourbon and the Kentucky Derby, but if history had gone another way, we could have been drinking Transylvania bourbon while watching the Transylvania Derby. The name has nothing to do with Dracula, although T-shirts for Lexington’s Transylvania University are always a popular tourist souvenir.

In 1750, physician and explorer Thomas Walker came across a long-rumored path through the Appalachian Mountains, which he named the Cumberland Gap in honor of the Duke of Cumberland. Nearly 20 years later, explorer Daniel Boone crossed the Gap; Fort Boonesborough was established in 1775.

Around the same time, businessman Richard Henderson set up the Louisa Company to negotiate the purchase of some land in what is now Kentucky. The company soon changed its name to the Transylvania Company, and in 1775, Henderson signed the Treaty of Sycamore Shoals with the Cherokee tribe, granting him a large tract of land. It became known as the colony of Transylvania. The Latin root “sylvania” refers to a wooded area, and “trans” means “across” (as in, across the Appalachians).

Unfortunately, Henderson’s treaty was quickly struck down since Virginia had already laid claim to the land and declared ownership of all rights. Hopes for Transylvania faded, and in 1792, this part of Virginia’s land broke away to become the state of Kentucky. However, no one can quite agree on the origin of the name. Possible translations include “prairie,” “land of tomorrow,” and “river of blood.”

Oklahoma

Fifty-five Native American tribes live in Oklahoma, and at one time, it was proposed that Oklahoma would be named after one of their most renowned figures — Sequoyah, who introduced reading and writing to the Cherokee language. In 1890, the Oklahoma Organic Act passed in Congress, with the intention of creating a new state. At the time, the land included in the proposal covered two territories: the Oklahoma Territory in the west and the Indian Territory in the east, where multiple tribes had been forcibly moved as a result of the 1830 Indian Removal Act.

The Cherokee, Creek, Seminole, Choctaw, and Chickasaw Nations united in a proposal to seek statehood, which would allow them to maintain control over the lands originally granted to them during the previous treaties and resettlements. The state would be run in accordance with tribal governments, with each tribe having its own county. In 1905, several bills were filed in Congress to request the state of Sequoyah. However, politicians in D.C. refused to even consider the possibility of a Native American-led state. Instead, President Theodore Roosevelt suggested that the two territories be joined, and in 1906 he signed the law that created the state of Oklahoma, a name that comes from the Choctaw language and means “honorable nation.”

West Virginia

In 1863, West Virginia was formed after taking the unusual step of seceding from the state of Virginia. The move protested Virginia’s secession from the Union in support of the Confederacy. The original proposed name for the new state was Kanawha, although some were worried that this might be confused with the existing county of the same name. Eventually, Kanawha gave way to simply West Virginia.

This wasn’t the region’s first attempt to form a separate state. Benjamin Franklin proposed the State of Vandalia in the 1770s. (The name was in honor of George III’s wife Charlotte, reputedly a descendant of the Vandal people.) The state would have encompassed what is now West Virginia, as well as parts of Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, and Pennsylvania. However, the Revolutionary War superseded those plans.

In 1775, locals petitioned the Continental Congress to create Westsylvania, comprising roughly the same area as the proposed Vandalia. Both that petition and another in 1783 went ignored. Historians suspect that the Continental Congress did not want to rile up Virginia or Pennsylvania at a time when they needed to show a united front.

Wyoming

Wyoming’s name is derived from the Delaware Native American word mecheweamiing,  which means “large plains.” But the original Wyoming wasn’t out west — it was the name of a valley in Pennsylvania.

In 1865, when a new territory was being considered in what is now Wyoming, James Ashley, a U.S. representative for Ohio, suggested the name Wyoming. Born in Pennsylvania, he was familiar with the Wyoming Valley and believed that the name would reflect the verdant valleys of the newly expanding American West. But this was before he’d actually visited the region — after doing so, he expressed regret about the name choice, deeming the land not fertile enough to produce crops or sustain a population. However, by this time, the name had already caught on.

When Wyoming finally achieved statehood in 1890, alternatives more fitting to the area’s peoples and history were considered. Potential names included Cheyenne, Yellowstone, Big Horn, Sweetwater, and others. But Wyoming was how most people referred to the land, and so  the state retained its historical link with Pennsylvania.

Colorado

Before Idaho achieved statehood in 1890, its name was almost used for another state: Colorado (which joined the Union in 1876). While some claim that the name Idaho came from a Kiowa word for “enemy,” historians say that there is no trace of the word before it was mentioned in Congress in 1860. When much of the West was opening up to mining, lobbyist George M. Willing proposed the name for what is now Colorado, claiming it was a Shoshone word. Although this was disputed, few people paid attention at the time. Later, though, an amateur historian who had originally joined Willing in the proposal did a little more research and came to the conclusion that the word was made up. He asked the Senate to change the name, and Colorado (Spanish for “red-colored”) was chosen instead. Despite the misconceptions, the Idaho name stuck around in popular consciousness. When Congress later decided to create another mining territory further north, the name was chosen for the territory.

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When studying history, a few big military names come to mind — Julius Caesar, Attila the Hun, Genghis Khan — but none eclipse the conqueror known as Alexander the Great. After becoming king of Macedonia at age 20 in 336 BCE, Alexander completely redrew the world map with his conquests. His empire eventually stretched around 2 million square miles, from Greece to Egypt to India, and Alexander proved himself to be one of the greatest military commanders in history — if not the greatest. Although he only sat on the throne for 13 years, his life forever changed the course of history. These six facts highlight his extraordinary, yet brief, life.

Alexander the Great Wasn’t a Self-Made Conqueror

Although Alexander the Great is known for his impressive military achievements, the young conqueror got a huge assist from his father. Known to history as Philip II of Macedon, this king of Macedonia subdued the Greek city-states of Athens and Thebes and established a new federation of Greek states known as the League of Corinth before turning his attention toward Persia. He was assassinated by a royal bodyguard in 336 BCE before he could launch the invasion. His son Alexander inherited (by violently eliminating his rivals) a war machine ready to conquer the known world.

Aristotle Was Young Alexander’s Teacher

In 343 BCE, Philip II summoned Aristotle to be the tutor for his son Alexander. The great Greek philosopher taught the young prince for seven years, until Alexander’s ascension to the throne in 336 BCE. Aristotle then returned to Athens, but Alexander brought the great thinker’s works with him on his conquests, and the two remained in touch through letters. Today, historians believe that the relationship between Aristotle and Alexander — along with the latter’s successful conquests — helped spread Aristotelian ideas throughout the conquered regions.

Alexander the Great Never Lost a Battle

Although Alexander inherited a well-oiled war machine and was taught by arguably the greatest mind of his age, the young king more than earned his eventual fame. During 13 years of war, Alexander the Great never lost a battle, making him the most successful military commander in human history. In fact, Alexander was so impressive that some military academies still teach his tactics to this day. Alexander’s strength as a leader came from the unwavering loyalty of his army, as well as his ability to leverage terrain and take the advantage over his enemies. Even when facing superior numbers, Alexander’s strong, decisive, and unrelenting leadership always led his forces to victory.

An Ancient City Was Named After His Favorite Horse

Alexander was the greatest general who ever lived, but some of that glory is shared with the horse he rode in on. Described as a black horse with a white star on its forehead, Bucephalus was Alexander’s war horse. One famous account states that the Macedonian prince was able to tame the animal after he realized the creature was afraid of its own shadow. Alexander rode the horse into every battle until its death after the Battle of Hydaspes in 326 BCE. The king subsequently named a town near the battle, in modern-day India, Bucephala. Scholars believe that Bucephalus is likely the horse depicted in the Alexander Mosaic, a famous Roman artwork that shows Alexander’s clash with Persian king Darius III.

Many Theories Surround the Death of Alexander the Great

As much as Alexander changed the trajectory of history by creating one of the largest empires ever known (then or since), so did his death at the age of 32. There are various versions of his demise, which suggest a days-long paralysis or an agonizing drawn-out poisoning. Modern theories posit that Alexander was done in by typhoid fever, or perhaps a rare neurological disorder known as Guillain-Barré syndrome, which would explain reports of his paralysis. Many doctors and historians have explored his death, yet mystery still remains about what finally put an end to the greatest warrior the world had ever seen.

Alexander’s Vast Empire Did Not Last for Long

While Alexander the Great fashioned an impressive empire, his death sent the region into a tailspin of war and uncertainty for four decades as his generals vied for power. The Hellenistic region eventually settled into four kingdoms, each ruled by one of his companions or generals who ruled as a successor: Lysimachus, Cassander, Ptolemy I, and Seleucus I Nicator. The Ptolemaic Dynasty in Egypt was the last to fall, in 30 BCE, when Cleopatra (an Egyptian pharaoh of Macedonian heritage) died after losing in battle to Octavian, later known as Caesar Augustus of Rome.  

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Although humans often prefer stories with a simple beginning, middle, and end, history doesn’t always line up so nicely. These six moments from the past represent some of the most head-scratching conundrums that still stump scientists, FBI investigators, and even amateur sleuths. Some of them might never be solved, but that doesn’t mean it’s not fun to try.

What Happened to the “Lost Colony” of Roanoke?

The legend of the Roanoke colony is so enduring because it lies at the heart of the founding of America. Starting in 1584, 23 years before the establishment of the Jamestown colony in nearby Virginia, three English expeditions landed at Roanoke Island, nestled between the Outer Banks and mainland North Carolina, although these initial forays failed to establish a permanent settlement.

In 1587, John White, along with roughly 115 colonists, traveled from England and established a colony on Roanoke Island. White sailed back to England later the same year to get supplies, but upon his return three years afterward (having been delayed by the Spanish Armada), he found Roanoke completely abandoned. There was no sign of foul play. Houses were replaced with a fortress, and the word “Croatoan” had been carved into a post — a reference to the nearby island of Croatoan, now called Hatteras Island, as well as the tribe that lived there.

White tried to travel to the island but storms prevented him from doing so, and he sailed back to England. He died in 1593 unable to return to Roanoke, and no one truly knows what happened to the colonists — no bodies have ever been found. Theories range from the practical (confrontation or assimilation with Native Americans) to the supernatural or extraterrestrial, but it’s unlikely historians will ever know for sure.

What Happened Aboard the Mary Celeste?

The world’s oceans have swallowed many ships since the dawn of the Age of Sail in the 16th century, but no story is quite like the curious case of the Mary Celeste. On November 7, 1872, the Mary Celeste set sail for Genoa, Italy, loaded with 1,700 barrels of alcohol as cargo. Fast-forward nearly a month later, and a British merchant vessel named Dei Gratia spotted the ship some 400 miles east of the Azores in the mid-Atlantic. But something was wrong — no one on board the Mary Celeste was responding to the Dei Gratia’s signals.

After boarding, sailors found the ship mostly undamaged, but abandoned. There was little to no sign of struggle, and six months of food onboard. Only the lifeboat and navigational tools were missing. The ship’s captain, his family, and his crew have never been found.

The theories put forward to explain the ship’s abandonment include pirates, an earthquake, or a mutiny. However, the most colorful theory includes a giant squid attack.

Who Was D.B. Cooper?

On November 24, 1971, a man calling himself Dan Cooper (later erroneously reported as D.B. Cooper) boarded Northwest Orient Flight 305 traveling from Portland, Oregon, to Seattle, Washington. Described as a mid-40s white man dressed in a business suit, Cooper ordered a bourbon and soda before alerting the stewardess that he had a bomb in his briefcase. Cooper then handed the stewardess a list of demands, saying that he wanted parachutes, a refueling truck, and $200,000 in cash waiting for him when the plane landed in Seattle. He added the phrase, “no funny stuff.”

After an exchange of the flight’s passengers for the money and other goods, the plane took off for Cooper’s requested destination in Mexico City — but he didn’t get far. While flying over southern Washington, Cooper strapped on one of the parachutes he had demanded and jumped out of the plane. Nine years later, a boy found $5,800 in southern Washington with serial numbers that matched the money stolen by Cooper. The FBI has described the case as “one of the longest and most exhaustive investigations in our history,” although it is no longer currently investigating it. Over 100 suspects have been evaluated, but the mysterious criminal has yet to be identified.

What Is the Purpose of the Nazca Lines?

The Nazca Lines are massive geoglyphs — sometimes more than a thousand feet long —  carved into the ground some 250 miles south of Lima, Peru. At first glance, these lines might look similar to crop circles, and can only be viewed from the cockpit of a helicopter or airplane. Depicting animals, plants, and various shapes, the Nazca Lines were created by the Nazca people some 2,000 years ago. Archaeologists have studied the lines for 80 years (and are still discovering new geoglyphs), but still don’t know for sure why ancient people created such massive monuments they couldn’t even see. Early theories suggest the lines had some sort of astronomical or calendrical purpose — not unlike Stonehenge — although more recent theories suggest the structures could’ve been tied to irrigation or elaborate religious ceremonies. Whatever the reason, the Nazca Lines remain a mystery etched into the very face of the planet.

Where Are the Gardner Museum Paintings?

Museum heists are common throughout history (and Hollywood), but the ne’er-do-wells are usually captured in the following months, or sometimes years. Unfortunately, the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston, Massachusetts, wasn’t so lucky. In the early morning of March 18, 1990, two burglars dressed as police officers subdued the museum’s two security guards and purloined 13 paintings worth over $500 million, including works by Johannes Vermeer, Rembrandt van Rijn, Edgar Degas, Govaert Flinck, and Édouard Manet. By 8:30 a.m., several hours after the heist, the police (the actual police) found the guards handcuffed in the basement.

Four years later, a mysterious letter sent to the museum offered to return the paintings for $2.6 million. Although the museum agreed, a second letter revealed the mysterious author was clearly spooked by FBI involvement, and the deal fell through. A Netflix documentary and a popular podcast have explored the heist, and the FBI even offered a $10 million reward leading to the paintings’ whereabouts, but despite it all, the 13 masterpieces — as well as the two burglars — have yet to be found.

What Happened to Amelia Earhart?

In the 1930s, Amelia Earhart wasn’t just one of the most famous pilots in the world — she was arguably the most famous woman in the world.  In 1928, she had become the first woman to fly across the Atlantic; in 1932, she became the first woman to make a solo nonstop transcontinental flight, from L.A. to Newark. So it’s no wonder her disappearance on July 2, 1937, while trying to circumnavigate the globe, sent a shockwave through society whose ripples can still be felt. On that fateful summer day in 1937, Earhart and her navigator, Fred Noonan, set out from Lae, New Guinea, flying a Lockheed Model 10 Electra and headed for Howland Island, a Pacific island that measures only 1 square mile.

Although Earhart was in contact with the U.S. Coast Guard ship near the island, the famous pilot never arrived. In her last transmission, she noted her position and that she was running low on fuel. Neither Earhart, her navigator, nor her plane was ever seen again. The leading theory is that Earhart simply crashed into the ocean, but an extensive search of the surrounding area has turned up nothing. Other theories suggest Earhart possibly landed on a nearby island in line with her last coordinates. In 2017, another theory suggested that Earhart survived as a Japanese prisoner, and some argued that she can be seen in a grainy photo taken on the then-Japanese Marshall Islands shortly after the crash (though some experts have poured cold water on the idea). It’s unlikely we’ll ever know what happened to one of history’s most famous aviators, but that won’t keep people from looking for answers.

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Who’s the only president to file a patent? Which VP wrote a hit pop song? And which Civil War general gave us the word “sideburns”? These 25 facts about leaders past and present, selected from around the website, shed some light on lesser-known aspects of some of the most famous figures in history.

Napoleon Wasn’t That Short

You’ve probably heard the phrase “Napoleon complex,” which refers to the idea that small creatures often act as if they’re much bigger than they really are in an attempt to overcompensate for their lack of stature. Of course, it’s also a reference to Napoleon Bonaparte, the early 19th-century French emperor who wreaked havoc on the European continent for nearly two decades. Yet French sources say Napoleon probably stood at about 5 feet, 5 inches. While that might seem somewhat short by today’s standards, it was only an inch shorter than the average height of a Frenchman at the time. It’s possible he even stood an inch or two taller than this estimate.

So why does history remember Napoleon as such a tiny tyrant? Turns out, it’s actually British propaganda. In 1803, British political cartoonist James Gillray — arguably the most influential caricaturist of his time — introduced the character “Little Boney,” which portrayed Bonaparte as both diminutive and juvenile. In Gillray’s cartoons, Napoleon was often seen throwing tantrums while stomping around in oversized boots, military garb, and bicorne hats. The image stuck, and the sight of a raging, pint-sized Napoleon echoed through history. Before his death in 1821, the twice-exiled Napoleon even admitted that Gillray “did more than all the armies of Europe to bring me down.”

Queen Elizabeth Had a Longtime Body Double

Leaders have historically used body doubles to thwart would-be assassins, but Queen Elizabeth II’s double served a different — and significantly less bloody — purpose. A big part of being the queen of the United Kingdom was simply showing up. Whether opening a hospital or hosting a foreign dignitary, the queen was always busy. A majority of her events required rehearsals, and that’s where Ella Slack came in. Although she doesn’t look like her majesty, Slack is about the same height and build, so if an event needed to test camera angles or see if the sun would be in the queen’s eyes, Slack was the person for the task.

Slack got the job while working for the BBC’s events department in the 1980s. She stood in for the queen more than 50 times, including riding in the royal carriage and attending rehearsals for the opening of Parliament. However, Slack didn’t get to enjoy all the comforts of royalty. As a strict rule, she was never allowed to sit on the throne in the House of Lords and instead just “lurked” above it. Slack was never paid for her stand-in efforts, but considered her role “a pleasure and an honor.”

Marie Antoinette Never Said, “Let Them Eat Cake”

Marie Antoinette’s most famous line has echoed for more than 200 years, reportedly adding fuel to the fire of France’s revolution. The only problem is that the French queen’s supposed declaration is a myth — historians don’t think Marie Antoinette ever said, “Let them eat cake,” after being told her subjects had no bread. Researchers point to two main plot holes in the quote’s supposed backstory, the first being its phrasing in English. In fact, the French queen is supposed to have said, “Qu’ils mangent de la brioche,” or “Let them eat brioche,” a reference to a decadent bread made with eggs and butter.

The second problem is that the outline of the tale predates Marie Antoinette’s reign. At least one similar story cropped up around the 16th century in Germany, wherein a noblewoman suggested the poorest citizens in her kingdom eat sweetened bread. However, the first person to print the line about brioche was likely Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a French philosopher who mentioned the story around 1767 in his book Confessions, attributing the comment to a “great princess.” Rousseau’s text was published when Marie Antoinette was still a child in Austria, though it’s possible the story inspired French revolutionaries decades later, and was repeated with the addition of Marie Antoinette’s name as propaganda against the French monarchy. Yet there is no historical evidence that proves the queen ever uttered the phrase.

Pope Francis Was Once a Bouncer at a Nightclub

However strange it may be to think of popes having day jobs outside the church, some of them did — including Pope Francis, who was once a bouncer at a nightclub. Long before he assumed the papacy in 2013 after his predecessor, Benedict XVI, became the first pope to resign in nearly six centuries, the future leader of the Catholic Church helped keep the peace at a bar in his hometown of Buenos Aires, Argentina. It wasn’t his only odd job, as he also swept floors and worked in a chemical lab. These humble beginnings may help explain why the “people’s pope” is known for his humility and modesty, especially compared to his flashier predecessor.

Martin Luther King Jr.’s Birth Name Was Michael

When Martin Luther King Jr. was born on January 15, 1929, his name wasn’t what we know it to be today. According to MLK’s original birth certificate, filed on April 12, 1934, his given name was Michael King Jr. His switch to a new name had to do with his father, who served as senior pastor at Atlanta’s Ebenezer Baptist Church. In 1934, King Sr. traveled to Germany, where he witnessed the budding rise of hate-fueled Nazism throughout the country. Germany was also where, in 1517, theologian and monk Martin Luther wrote his Ninety-Five Theses, which in turn inspired the Protestant Reformation. That movement held great significance to King Sr., who, upon returning to the states, chose the name “Martin Luther” for both himself and his son. MLK Jr. rose to prominence under this new name, though he didn’t officially amend his birth certificate until July 23, 1957, when the name “Michael” was crossed out and the words “Martin Luther Jr.” were printed next to it.

Cleopatra Wasn’t Egyptian

Although she ruled Egypt as pharaoh from 51 BCE to 30 BCE, Cleopatra wasn’t of Egyptian descent. She was instead Greek, specifically Macedonian. Cleopatra was the last of a line of rulers of the Ptolemaic Kingdom, a dynasty founded by her distant ancestor Ptolemy I Soter. While the kings of this dynasty often fashioned their names after its originator, Ptolemaic queens preferred names such as Arsinoë, Berenice, and of course, Cleopatra (hence the “VII”).

Although Cleopatra wasn’t ethnically Egyptian, she does hold the honorable distinction of being the only Ptolemaic ruler who could actually speak the Egyptian language — along with half a dozen or so other languages.

Charles III Is the Oldest Person to Ascend to the British Throne

Given that his mother and predecessor, Queen Elizabeth II, was the longest-reigning monarch in British history (ruling for over 70 years), it makes sense that Charles III holds the distinction of being both the longest-serving British heir-apparent and the oldest individual to assume the British throne. Having ascended to the role at 73 years, 9 months, and 23 days old, Charles is almost a decade older than the previous record-holder, King William IV, who was 64 years, 10 months, and 3 days old upon becoming the king of England in 1830. On the flip side, Henry VI holds the record of being the youngest individual to assume the British throne — he became king in 1422 at just 8 months and 25 days old.

U.S. Vice President Charles Dawes Wrote a Hit Pop Song

Not many Americans know the name Charles G. Dawes today, but they should. As one of only three U.S. Vice Presidents to receive the Nobel Peace Prize during their lifetimes (for his work to preserve peace in Europe), he’s reserved a place in the history books alongside Theodore Roosevelt and Al Gore. But perhaps even more notably, he’s also the only veep with a No. 1 hit pop song. Dawes was a self-trained pianist and flautist as well as a banker, and in 1911, 14 years before he became Calvin Coolidge’s Vice President, he wrote a short instrumental piece titled “Melody in A Major.” The song received some attention during Dawes’ lifetime, but it wasn’t until 1951 — the year he died — that American songwriter Carl Sigman put lyrics to Dawes’ creation and called it “It’s All in the Game.” Seven years later, Tommy Edwards became the first Black artist to reach No. 1 in the U.S. with his doo-wop-influenced rendition of Sigman’s song.

But that wasn’t the end of Dawes’ posthumous music stardom. The song soon transformed into a pop standard, and was covered by a variety of artists across several genres. There’s Nat King Cole’s big band affair (1957), Elton John’s upbeat cover (1970), Van Morrison’s sorrowful take (1979), Issac Hayes’ soulful remix (1980), and Merle Haggard’s country creation (1984), just to name a few. To this day (and for likely many days to come), Dawes remains the only chief executive — President or Vice President — to score a hit on the Billboard Hot 100.

Alexander the Great Was Tutored by Aristotle

In 343 BCE, Philip II summoned Aristotle to be the tutor for his son Alexander. The great Greek philosopher taught the young prince for seven years, until Alexander’s ascension to the throne in 336 BCE. Aristotle then returned to Athens, but Alexander brought the great thinker’s works with him on his conquests, and the two remained in touch through letters. Today, historians believe that the relationship between Aristotle and Alexander — along with the latter’s successful conquests — helped spread Aristotelian ideas throughout the conquered regions.

Russian Czar Peter the Great Established a Tax on Beards

A few years into his reign, Russian Czar Peter I (aka “Peter the Great”) decided to study abroad. Worried that Russia was lagging behind in key technological areas, especially when it came to shipbuilding, Peter traveled incognito from 1697 to 1698 to various European countries, including Prussia, Holland, and England, in an effort to modernize his own nation. Afterward, with his newly learned shipbuilding know-how, he created Russia’s first navy.

But it wasn’t just maritime skills Peter learned on his “Grand Embassy.” He also picked up a few fashion and grooming ideas — including a particular interest in the freshly shaven chins of most Western European men. Determined to integrate Russia into the increasingly powerful club of European countries, Peter established (around 1705) a tax that fiscally punished anyone sporting a beard. The tax was progressive, with the well-to-do shelling out more for their facial adornments than the peasantry; nobility and merchants could pay as much as 100 rubles a year, while peasants might pay one kopek (1/100 of a ruble). Yet the tax was almost universally reviled — and even helped spark a few riots. The biggest opponent of the tax was the Russian Orthodox Church, which regarded clean-shaven faces as sinful. Despite this stiff opposition, Peter I stuck with the tax and was known to even shave off the beards of his guests at parties, much to the horror displayed on their now-clean-shaven faces.

Eleanor Roosevelt Wrote a Newspaper Column for Nearly 30 Years

Starting at the very end of 1935 and continuing until her death in 1962, Eleanor Roosevelt kept a regular, nationally syndicated newspaper column called “My Day.” Eventually, it appeared in 90 different U.S. newspapers, detailing both her actions of the day and causes she supported — including ones that perhaps diverged a little from FDR’s views. After her husband’s death, she spoke even more freely about her viewpoints, and chose to keep advocating through her writing instead of running for office herself. Some newspapers dropped her column after she advocated for the election of Adlai Stevenson II in his run against Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1956, leading United Features Syndicate to instruct her to limit her support for candidates, which she did not do. For the majority of the run, Eleanor published six columns a week; only after her health began to decline in the last couple of years of her life did she cut that down to three.

George Washington Lost More Battles Than He Won

General George Washington embodies the phrase “losing the battle but winning the war,” because during the American Revolution, he lost more battles than he won. Despite some experience in the British army, Washington had little experience fielding a large fighting force, and the Continental Army was filled with soldiers who were far from professional fighters. However, Washington’s resilience, determination, and long-term strategy eventually won the day. According to Washington’s aide Alexander Hamilton, the plan was simple: “Our hopes are not placed in any particular city, or spot of ground, but in preserving a good army … to take advantage of favorable opportunities, and waste and defeat the enemy by piecemeal.” Washington, also aided by competent generals such as Nathanael Greene and assisted by the French navy, decisively ended British ambitions in the colonies at the Battle of Yorktown in 1781.

Queen Elizabeth Celebrated Two Birthdays

While the queen’s actual birthday fell on April 21, she also had a second “official” birthday in the summer. It was marked with a ceremony called Trooping the Colour, a practice that has existed for over 260 years to ensure that British sovereigns whose birthdays fall during colder months also have a ceremony that happens during nicer weather. More than 1,400 soldiers, 200 horses, and 400 musicians participated in the military parade, which usually happened in June. (The “colors” in the ceremony’s name refers to the hues of the flags used by regiments in the British army; “trooping” refers to officers marching up and down, waving the flags.) The public turned out in droves to take part, and members of the royal family also joined the procession on horseback or in carriages.

Louis XIX Had the Shortest Reign in History

King Louis XIX of France holds an unfortunate Guinness World Record: shortest reign of a monarch in history. He reigned over France for a mere 20 minutes in 1830 following the abdication of his father, Charles X, before he himself stepped down as part of the July Revolution. (Legitimists — supporters of the Bourbon dynasty — didn’t accept this, however, and considered him the rightful king for the rest of his life.)

Some consider Louis XIX’s record to be a shared one, however. Luís Filipe, Prince Royal of Portugal, was fatally wounded in the same attack that killed his father, King Carlos I, on February 1, 1908, but survived 20 minutes longer. The 20-year-old was technically king for those few minutes, but never formally declared ruler, and his younger brother Manuel II became the last king of Portugal on that fateful day instead. His reign wasn’t especially long, either: Portugal became a republic as a result of the October 5, 1910, revolution and Manuel spent the remainder of his life exiled in England.

John Adams and Thomas Jefferson Died on the Same Day

John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, bitter political rivals and, at times, close friends, died on the very same day — July 4, 1826, 50 years after signing the Declaration of Independence. The two were the last surviving of the original revolutionaries who helped forge a new nation after breaking with the British Empire. During their presidencies, the men diverged on policy and became leaders of opposing political parties, but at the urging of another founding father, Benjamin Rush, around 1812, Adams and Jefferson began a correspondence that lasted the rest of their lives. On his deathbed at the age of 90, Adams’ last words were reportedly “Jefferson still lives,” but he was mistaken — Jefferson had died five hours earlier in Monticello, Virginia.

Pedro Lascuráin Was President of Mexico for Only 45 Minutes

Mexico’s 38th president, Pedro Lascuráin, set an unfortunate record by being in office for a mere 45 minutes on February 19, 1913, following a coup that overthrew his predecessor, Francisco I. Madero. As foreign secretary, Lascuráin was third in the line of succession following the vice president and attorney general; because both of those men had likewise been ousted, Lascuráin was appointed president for just enough time to make General Victoriano Huerta — the architect of the coup — interior secretary. After that, he immediately resigned so that Huerta could replace him. This odd maneuvering was Huerta’s idea, as he believed it would make his rise to power look more legitimate in the eyes of Mexican citizens.

“Sideburns” Come From Union General Ambrose Burnside

Sideburns have been found on the faces of several famous figures, from Alexander the Great to Charles Darwin, but it wasn’t until the U.S. Civil War (1861–1865) that the term “sideburns” came into being, thanks to a particularly hirsute Union general. Ambrose Burnside wasn’t much of a general: At the Battle of Antietam, his ineffective command meant his soldiers struggled to take a stone bridge (now called Burnside Bridge) and turned what could’ve been a Union victory into a draw. At Fredericksburg, things went from bad to worse, as Burnside led several failed assaults against Robert E. Lee’s forces. But what Burnside might’ve lacked in military acumen, he made up for with his luxurious facial hair, which connected his side-whiskers to his mustache (his chin remained clean-shaven). After the war, many men copied the general’s look, and these facial facsimiles were called “burnsides.” Over the years, the term eventually flipped into its modern spelling.

Abraham Lincoln Was the Only President to Receive a Patent

Abraham Lincoln had a lifelong fascination with machinery and often tinkered with mechanical devices and tools. He also spent much time traveling and working on the river boats that sailed along the Mississippi River and other waterways, which were prone to breaching onto shores in shallow waters. In 1848, while Lincoln was serving his sole term as a U.S. congressman, a boat he was traveling home to Illinois on got stuck on a sandbar — forcing the captain to empty the barrels of cargo on board so he could use them to buoy and lift the ship back on the water.

The incident sparked a new idea in Lincoln, who spent the congressional break working on a design for inflatable bellows that could be attached to a ship’s hull to lift it over sandbars or other impediments. He had a scale model created and submitted the idea to the U.S. Patent Office. In May 1849, he received U.S. Patent No. 6469, although his flotation system was never put to practical use.

Charles III Is the First British Monarch to Hold a University Degree

While King Charles was born into a life of luxury with every resource at his fingertips, he decided to forgo the traditional at-home tutoring for royals and seek out higher education. In 1970, Charles received a bachelor’s degree from Trinity College at Cambridge University, becoming the first heir to the British crown to earn a degree of higher education. At school, Charles studied anthropology, archaeology, and history, an impressive range of topics to balance alongside his royal duties as Prince of Wales — a role he officially took on at an investiture ceremony in 1969 at age 20.

After graduating, Charles enlisted in the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force, a decision he made to follow in the footsteps of his father. While serving in the armed forces from 1971 until 1976, Charles also earned a Master of Arts degree from Cambridge in 1975.

Gandhi Never Said, “Be the Change You Wish to See in the World”

It’s a lovely saying, but it wasn’t Gandhi. He did say something similar: “If we could change ourselves, the tendencies in the world would also change. As a man changes his own nature, so does the attitude of the world change towards him. … We need not wait to see what others do.” According to Quote Investigator, the more succinct version of the phrase didn’t start appearing until the mid-1970s — decades after Gandhi’s death.

Martin Luther King Jr. Was a Huge Fan of “Star Trek”

Martin Luther King Jr. was not only a huge fan of Star Trek but a pivotal figure in the career trajectory of one of the show’s most beloved actors. Star Trek was the only program King allowed his children to stay up late to watch, in large part because of the character Uhura, played by African American actress Nichelle Nichols. King viewed Nichols’ role as one of the few examples of equality on television — a belief that he expressed to Nichols upon meeting her at a fundraiser for the NAACP. After the show’s first season ended in 1967, Nichols had been leaning toward departing Star Trek for a role on Broadway. In the end, however, she was swayed by King’s passionate words about her power and influence as a role model for Black women, and decided to remain a member of the cast.

James Madison’s VP Elbridge Gerry Gave Us the Word “Gerrymandering”

Elbridge Gerry’s political chicanery as the governor of Massachusetts was so legendary, he gave his name to the practice of redistricting with political aims: gerrymandering.

The word was coined after Gerry’s party drew some absurd state Senate districts in order to elect more Democratic-Republicans, at the expense of their rival party, the Federalists. Redistricting with political aims wasn’t a new practice, but this was a particularly brazen example — one district resembled a salamander — and after Gerry signed off on the bill, critics dubbed it a “gerry-mander.”

Jackie Kennedy Coined the Term “Camelot” to Refer to the Kennedy Administration

Shortly after her husband’s funeral, Jackie Kennedy welcomed Life magazine reporter Theodore H. White to the family compound in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in an effort to ensure JFK’s lasting legacy. During the interview, she coined a term that’s now synonymous with her husband’s administration: “Camelot,” a reference to both Arthurian legend and JFK’s favorite Broadway musical. In likening his presidency to the storied court, Jackie sought to establish her husband as an almost mythical figure. Quoting the musical, she stated, “Don’t let it be forgot, that once there was a spot, for one brief, shining moment that was known as Camelot.” She went on to add that while there would be other Presidents, there would “never be another Camelot again.” Editors at Life reportedly objected to the Camelot theme running throughout the interview, but Jackie was insistent on keeping it and even added her own edits to White’s notes.

Alexander the Great Never Lost a Battle

Although Alexander inherited a well-oiled war machine and was taught by arguably the greatest mind of his age, the young king more than earned his eventual fame. During 13 years of war, Alexander the Great never lost a battle, making him the most successful military commander in human history. In fact, Alexander was so impressive that some military academies still teach his tactics to this day. Alexander’s strength as a leader came from the unwavering loyalty of his army, as well as his ability to leverage terrain and take the advantage over his enemies. Even when facing superior numbers, Alexander’s strong, decisive, and unrelenting leadership always led his forces to victory.

A Cat Named Stubbs Was Honorary Mayor of a Town in Alaska

Most politicians are at least somewhat divisive. One notable exception: Stubbs, a cat who served as the honorary mayor of Talkeetna, Alaska, for more than 18 scandal-free years. He first entered office around 1998, when the town (technically an unincorporated census-designated place) and its 900 residents chose him as their leader. (Rumors that Stubbs was officially elected as a write-in candidate are incorrect, but locals loved their feline “mayor” nonetheless.) Over the course of the next two decades, Stubbs became a popular tourist attraction and performed such mayoral duties as, in the words of Smithsonian Magazine, “wandering around the town, drinking catnip-laced water from margarita glasses, and of course, sleeping a lot.” Take note, human politicians.